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INHeCUONS 41:1 Crinvuipice vs ver κ͵ττοτο -τ 
Arnold’s First Latin Book. 
Second Latin Book. 
Progressive Exercises. 
A Complete Course for the First Year. 
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A Latin Grammar, for Schools and Colleges. Revised edition. 1881. 
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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
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“δυο 


ΠᾺΡ 


THE 


GREEK PREPOSITIONS, 


STUDIED FROM THEIR ORIGINAL MEANINGS 
AS DESIGNATIONS OF SPACE. 


BY 


F. A. ADAMS, Pu. D. 


It is of more importance to us to learn how the Greeks spoke than to 
know what they said.— Jer. 


NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
1, 8, anv 5 BOND STREET, 
1885. 


Copyricut, 1885, 
By D, APPLETON AND COMPANY. 


Virgo) 


INTRODUCTION. 


Wuartever theory we adopt of the origin of lan- 

guage, it is agreed by all scholars that its words are 
derived largely from notions of things in space. This 
book presents the results of a study of the Greek 
Prepositions from the stand-point of that admission. 
- No class of words in the Greek is more important 
than the Prepositions; and none are more imper- 
fectly understood; yet these are the words that, be- 
yond all others, bear on their face the suggestions of 
space. But the clew is soon lost that conducts from 
these primary uses into the wide realm of thought, 
of reasoning, of will, of passion, and life. And yet 
such a clew there must be, connecting by real, though 
subtle analogies, the primary meanings with all the 
meanings which follow. 

But learners of the Greek find no harder thing, 
after passing the rudiments, than to fix in mind the 
meanings of verbs compounded with prepositions. 
The difficulty is natural, and on the whole creditable 
to the intellect of the embarrassed student. He has 
nothing but his memory to aid him; neither the Dic- 


Agen’ 


iv Introduction. 


tionary nor the Grammar give instruction here—they 
give only authority. The learner is left with few in- 
citements to his power of discrimination and logical 
deduction. The definitions in the Lexicons burden 
his memory; they do not instruct him to find his 
way. Even Treatises on the Greek Prepositions do 
not evince any systematic endeavor to interpret the 
prepositions through a logical deduction from their 
primary meanings as designations of space. The 
learner under these conditions naturally becomes in- 
different ; for what he cannot do intelligently, he 
becomes, after a time, willing not to do at all; and, 
perhaps, in the end, he adds one to the number of 
those who complain that they have spent much time 
on the Greek with little profit. 

To show that the picture here outlined is not too 
highly colored, let a college graduate, who has done 
well in his Greek, take, for example, the verb λείπειν: 
and, prefixing to it successively the prepositions ἀπὸ, 
διὰ, ἐκ, ἐν, ἐπὶ, κατὰ, Tapa, ὑπὸ, let him form English 
sentences that, if written in Greek, would require the 
use of these prepositions respectively compounded 
with the verb. His certain failure is the result of 
many former defeats, where his natural inquisitive- 
ness has not been encouraged and rewarded. 

When he finds the verb μένειν compounded with 
ava, with διὰ, ἐν and κατὰ, with περὶ and ὑπὸ, he 
finds himself in a like difficulty. The adjectives 
δῆλος, ἔκδηλος, ἔνδηλος, κατάδηλος, all contain the 


Introduction. Vv 


notion clear, with differences which forbid the use 
of one for another. What are these differences ? 
And through what lines of thought does the learner 
come to see these differences, so that the knowledge 
of them shall no longer depend on a burdened mem- 
ory, but shall be a natural possession of his instructed 
intelligence? The present work is an endeavor to 
clear somewhat this seeming jungle of the Greek 
Prepositions—to show that it is not a jungle, but a 
garden, whose alleys and paths have become over- 
grown through neglect, and lost to view. Or—to 
speak without a figure—the object of this work is 
contained by implication in the following Thesis ¢ 

The Greek Prepositions, suggestive primarily of 
notions of space, show through all their uses such 
analogy to the primary meanings as affords aids in- 
dispensable to a satisfactory. understanding of the lan- 
guage. 

The motive and olject of the work, thus stated, 
naturally lead to the question of its method. It be- 
gins by analyzing the notions of space, and the notions 
that accompany these in nature; it then seeks for the 
analogues of these in human experience. Thus the 
whole field of human life, of thought, passion, and 
purpose, is laid open, and the Prepositions enter it in 
their own right. 

The store-house of facts used in the present study 
is the language of the Greck Literature—the Greek 
Language at its best. As the work is Psychological, 


v1 L[utroduction. 


not Etymological, it does not discuss the origins of 
words. Itisnot the forms of the words, but the thought 
that underlies them, that is here the object of search ; 
not the changing fortunes through which a written 
word has passed till it comes to the form in which we 
have it in our hands; but what the word means now 
that is in our hands, and how it comes to mean what 
we know it does mean. As the prepositions primarily 
denote relations of space, we have in these notions, 
and others which these carry with them, a point of 
departure—not a working hypothesis awaiting its 
justification, but a basis of facts settled by common 
consent; ava primarily means up, and κατὰ down; 
ἐπὶ means primarily on or upon, and ὑπὸ means 
under , and so of the rest. In beginning at this point 
we begin where the learner must begin; and where 
he must stay till he learns to love the Greek, if he 
ever comes to love it at all. 

As the ideas of space and the notions these carry 
with them were always present, it is reasonable to 
believe that they were operative in the formation of 
language from the first; that they served as land- 
marks pointing out the paths along which human 
speech should move. Jor reasons already suggested, 
the present work does not enter this wide and at- 
tractive field. It is written with the humbler aim of 
aiding the students who are learning to read Greek, 
and the teachers whose work is to instruct them. 

This work makes no claim to be a complete 


Introduction. vii 


treatise on the Greek Preposition. The author has 
restricted himself to the presentation of the subject 
in a single line of observation—omitting whatever 
was not pertinent to his special object. 

In this view he trustfully commends it to the 
hospitable reception that will be readily accorded to 
a thoughtful endeavor on new ground. 


SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 


Tuts book, it is believed, may, with advantage, be put in 
the hands of learners as soon as they have left the reading of 
detached sentences, and have entered on continuous prose. It 
should not then, however, be made matter for consecutive 
recitations. The positions are new, and too important to be 
treated thus in mass; each point should be elucidated by in- 
stances found in the text of the student’s daily reading. The 
author would offer tc the consideration of his fellow-teachers 
a plan like the following: Select from the book a single prepo- 
sition, and make the whole, or a part of the matter relating to 
it, and no more, the subject of one, or at most two recitations, 
the teacher eagerly lending his maturer thought to the pupils to 
aid them in the new line of study. Then let him direct that for 
the next two weeks (or more, at his discretion) that preposition 
be marked for special attention whenever it occurs in the read- 
ing of the class. At the end of this time let all these instances 
be reviewed, in the combined light of the statements in the book 
on that preposition, and of the quickened attention which the 
pupils will not fail to give to the word thus singled out. Let 
the prepositions be taken up, one at a time, in a way like this, 
and the result will be not to load the memory with words of 
definition, but to quicken the apprehension of the thought that 
underlies them. The past will not be forgotten; and eager 
study will daily bring its own reward. 


ERRATA. 


Page 18, middle, for τὰσ read ras. 
21, line 8 from bottom, for κασχεθε = κατεσχε read κάσχεθε = 
κατέσχε. 
21, line 6 from bottom, for ἄνισχον read ἀνίσχον. 
27, top, for dé, καταδέιν read δεῖν, καταδεῖν. 
29, top, for ζητέιν, ava(nrew read ζητεῖν, ἀναζητεῖν. 
31, line 9, for κατξιδὸν read κατεῖδον. 
31, line 10 from bottom, for σημάινοιεν read σημαίνοιεν. 
39, top, for ὑφηγξιτο read ὑφηγεῖτο. 
43, line 2, for dpuyaydou read ὀρυμαγδοῦ. 
44, line 3 from bottom, for ὑμᾶς read ἡμᾶς. 
45, bottom, for can read cave. 
59, line 4, for τᾶις read ταῖς. 
60, line 1, for τὸν ἀιγαλὸν read τοῦ αἰγαλοῦ. 
63, line 12 from bottom, for ποιξιν read ποιεῖν. 
65, line 1, for épévpor read ἐφεῦροι. 
66, line 10 from bottom, for thing (Od. 19:13), read thing. Od. 
19:13. 
- 68, line 9, for ΠροΞαιτξιν read Προεαιτεῖν. 
69, line 11 from bottom, for mposdéw read mposdeiv. 
69, line 12 from bottom, for émdéew read ἐπιδεῖν. 
74, line 7 from bottom, Sor Oce. read Occ. 
87, line 7, for yap read yap. 
87, § 158 , for τελέιν read τελεῖν. Four instances on this page. 
88, ‘for ἀποτελξιν read ἀποτελεῖν. Three instances on this page, 
and one in first line of the note. 
92, line 8, for ἀκόυσαντες read ἀκούσαντες. 
96, for és read eis. Four instances on this page. 
97, line 1, for Ἔτι read Eis. 
98, line 4, for Ἔις read Eis. 
98, near pottom, for és read eis. Two instances. 
99, top, for Ἔις "read Eis, and near bottom, for és read eis. Two 
instances. 
101, line 1, for Ἔις read Eis. 
101, middle, for ἐπιμελέξισθαι read ἐπιμελεῖσθαι. 
102, line 9 from bottom, for Antis. read Antig. 
102, line 4 from bottom, for ποιξιν read ποιεῖν. 
108, line 1, for Ἔις read Eis. 
104, line 5, for ποιξι read ποιεῖ. 
105, line 1, for Ἔις read Eis. 
107, line 1, for Ets read Eis. 
115, near middle, Sor loviny read ᾿Ιονίην. 
129, middle, for ‘assunder read asunder. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER I. 


OF SPACE, AND ITS SILENT TEACHINGS. 


SECTION 


Words of space applied to ideas of time 

Applied to description, and to moral conduct 

This extension springs from an instinct in humanity ; 
Language limited and poor; imagination must supply its derstias 
The proper starting-point in treating the Prepositions . 

The mode of study; deductive and inductive : : 


CHAPTER II. 
ἀνὰ AND κατά. UP AND DOWN. 


The notion wp; its attendant oie First, Second, Third, 
, Fourth . : 
The notion down; its Sttandant notions, First, ee) Third, 
Fourth. ; : : : - 
These attendant notions not the ei of andy pat given in 
nature . 


CHAPTER III. 
ava AND κατὰ PRIMARILY ADVERBIAL. 


Preposition and Adverb—their difference 5 
᾿Ανὰ, up, and κατὰ, down, primarily Adverbial . : ᾿ 
Κατὰ with the Genitive and with the Accusative, illustrated . 
Language limited compared with thought 


Oo o fe WO ἢ = 


1 
12 


xe Contents. 


CHAPTER IV. 


ἀνὰ AND κατά. MEANINGS DERIVED FROM ANALOGY. 
SECTION 


Analogue of kara in motion along the ground; in speech; 
judgment . : ἃ : ὃ : : C > 18 


᾿Ανὰ Tas πόλεις, κατὰ τὰς πόλεις. : ᾿ 3 . : “18 
᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ with numerals : : - Ξ : : τ LG) 
᾿Ανὰ κράτος, κατὰ κράτος ὁ. ὃ é : : : ~ * 20)21 


Ἂν ὅμιλον, καθ᾽ ὅμιλον. : : : : δ ὃ . 22, 23 


CHAPTER V. 


ἀνὰ AND κατὰ IN COMPOSITION. 


᾿Ανάγεσθαι, κατάγεσθαι. : 5 5 : : : : ~ 24 
᾿Ανάβασις, κατάβασις ; ἀνιέναι, καθιέναι. 5 5 : Ξ = 20 
᾿Ανακαίειν, κατακαίειν . ὃ : : ᾿ 5 : : 5 Ae 
Avéxew, κατέχειν ; ἀναπάνειν, kaTamave ὁ. : : : eer 
᾿Αναμένειν, καταμένειν. : : ς ᾿ : : 247, 28, 29 
᾿Αναδέχεσθαι, καταδέχεσθαι, καταγιγνώσκειν. : ¢ Piven σὺ, ΚΙ 
᾿Αναγνάμπτειν, ἀναπείθειν, avaxdpeiv, ἀνατιθέναι, marks of upward 
motion in each (Sec. 7) . ὃ ὃ : 5 5 5 . 82 
᾿Ανανεύειν, κατανεύειν ; ἀνασπᾶν, to pull down 3 : . 33 
᾿Αναδεῖν, third mark of upward motion (7) . : : ᾿ . 34 
Κατάρχειν, apparent contradiction reconciled . Ξ -ἰ 385, 90 
Δέιν, to lack, karadéw . : : : j ὃ : : 7 9 ἢ 
Δεικνύναι, ἀναδεικνύναι, καταδεικνύναι . Ε ᾿ : . 38 
Μανθάνειν, ἀναμανθάνειν, καταμανθάνειν. 5 : 5 9 Acs) 
"Avante, ἀναλύειν . 5 : : 5 : 3 . 40,41 
Καθορᾶν Se τις ὃ 3 : . ὃ 5 5 . 42 
Καταφαίνεσθαι, ὑπο αν σθαι, ἘΣ ΚΝ τς ὃ : ᾿ . 48, 44 
᾿Αναμιγνύναι, καταμιγνύναι . - 2 . : - 3 . 45 
Κτείνειν, κατακτείνειν, ἀποκτείνειν. : : : : : . 46 
Θνήσκειν, καταθνήσκειν. : : ; Ἵ ‘ : aT 


᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ, leading to the same oh by different paths . . 48 


Contents. ΧΙ 


CHAPTER VI. 

ἐπὶ, ON, UPON. 
SECTION 
Primary suggestion; gravition . ᾿ : : δ : ~ 49 
Transference of direction, change of power . : : 3 Εν ἢ 
Two forms of power suggested in ἐπὶ ; impact; pressure. . 51 


Sphere of ἐπὶ enlarged by change of dimeeaon Δ : . 52,538 
Ἐπὶ with the Genitive; with the Dative . i : . | 84555 
Ἐπὶ with expressions of time : δ A ᾿ : : . 56 
General suggestion of power in ἐπὶ. On 
Object of ém pictured as lifeless, not weceecarily lifeless i in fact OS 


CHAPTER VII. 


ὑπὸ, UNDER; ACCESSORY NOTIONS. 


Correlatives of ὑπὸ in space. : : : : ᾿ 3 . 59 
Implications through gravitation . : : 4 : . 60, 61 
Correlative of gravitation . δ : 8 : Ἴ : ΟΣ 
Cases following ὑπὸ. : : δ : : : 3 . 63 
Position under ὑπὸ. ὃ : : : : 5 5 . 64 
Motion toward, ending in position under. : : ὃ 5 ἡ 
Motion from, beginning with position under, : : : 25/66 
Dynamic suggestions . : : : : : 5 ΟἿ 
ἘΘ  ΞΔΟ ΕΙ of the correlatives md fn ἐπί. : =. 68569 
Ἐπάγειν, ὑπάγειν, ὑπελαύνειν. é é ‘ : : a hh ZL 
Μένειν, ὑπομένειν, ἐπιμένειν. 5 : : ὁ . : . 42 
ἘἘπιτιθέναι, ἐπέρχεσθαι, ἐπιέναι, ἐπιπίπτειν, ὑποφέρειν, ὑποδέχεσθαι, 
ὑποφεύγειν. : : : : : : : 73 
ἩἩγεῖσθαι, ἐξηγ-, bony- - 3 : : : ὃ : ᾿ 4, 75, 76 


CHAPTER VIII. 
πρὸς, TO, TOWARDS, NEAR TO, FACE TO FACE. 


Πρὸς, primarily suggestive of human relations. : ope 8 
Suggestion of reciprocity in mpés . 5 : ‘ 3 - 79: 80 


xii Contents. 


Ἐπ᾿ ἀρετὴν, πρὸς ἀρετὴν, compared 3 2 
The object of πρὸς becomes to the imagination active . 


Ἐπὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα, πρὸς τοὺς παῖδας 5 ὃ 
TS 817.0. “ Σ a A 
Ἢ ὁδὸς ἐπ᾽ εὐδαιμονίαν ; πρὸς εὐδαιμονίαν ; j 3 


Πρὺς τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα, ἐπὶ τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα 
Ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους, πρὸς τοὺς πολεμίους 
Discriminations of ἐπὶ and πρὸς further illustrated 


CHAPTER IX. 
ἐπὶ AND πρὸς IN COMPOSITION. 


Ἐπέχειν, προσέχειν, illustrated, and tested 
Applications of the above 
Ἐπερωτᾶν, προσερωτᾶν, μιμνήσκειν, ἔπιμ- 


SECTION 
. ot 
82-88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

. 93 
94-103 


Ἐπὶ looking forward to what is yet to come. . 108 
Ἐπὶ sometimes doing for the Greek mind what the pronoun this 
does for the English mind : ὃ é . 109 
Λανθάνεσθαι, ἐπιλανθάνεσθαι. ; : : : 110, 111, 112 
Neve, ἐπινεύειν, κατανεύειν. 113 
᾿Αιτεῖν, ἐπαιτεῖν, προσαιτεῖν. 114 
Ακούειν, ἐπακούειν, προσακούειν 115 
Πέτομαι, ἐπιπέτομαι, ἰάχειν, ἐπιάχειν 116 
Aéw, to bind, ἐπιδέιν, προσδξιν pe bili? 
Ἐυφημξιν, ἐπευφημέιν ; λέγειν, ἐπιλέγειν 118..119 
Σκέπτεσθαι, ἐπισκέπτεσθαι 120 
Πείθεσθαι, ἐπιπείθεσθαι ; διδύναιΣ δΕΡῚ ΠΣ: 121 
Τνάμπτειν, ἐπιγνάμπτειν, ἀναγνάμπτειν ; ἔρεσθαι, ἐπέρεσϑαι 122 
Στρέφειν, ἐπιστρέφειν ; δινεῖν, ἐπιδινεῖν.. 129 
Ἐπιτυγχάνειν, κατατυγχάνειν, προστυγχάνειν . 124 
Δεικνύναι, ἐπιδεικνύναι. 125 
᾿Εφιέναι, προσιέναι ; ἐπάγειν, προσάγειν. 126 
Ἐπιτάσσειν, προστάσσειν 127 


Contents. 


CHAPTER X. 
παρά. 


With Genitive, Dative, Accusative 


Implied superiority in its object . 


Παρὰ, meaning against, explained in bonimct ri κατά 


CHAPTER ΣΙ. 
παρὰ IN COMPOSITION. 


Literal application - 
Σκευή, σκευάζειν, παρασκ-, κατασκ- 
Used in morals 

Παρατείνειν. 

Παραγιγνώσκειν 

᾿Αινεῖν, ἐπαινεῖν, παραινεῖν 


CHAPTER XII. 


ἀπὸ AND ἐκ. OFF FROM, OUT FROM. 


xii 


SECTION 
. 128 


. 129 
. 180 


. 181, 182 


. 183 
. 194 


. 185, 188 


sels 
. 138 


The notions of from and out from, compared and illustrated from 


the Greek 
Continued illustrations. 
᾿Απὸ and ἐκ discriminated in Ean aesceat 


CHAPTER XIII. 
ἀπὸ AND ἐκ IN COMPOSITION. 


᾿Αποπίπτειν, ἐκπίπτειν. 

᾿Αποδιδόναι, ἐκδιδόναι 

᾿Αφικνεῖσθαι, ἐξικνεῖσθαι 

Πειρᾶσθαι, ἀποπειρᾶσθαι ὃ 
Ἐκπειρᾶσθαι, ἀποτρέπεσθαι, ἐκτρέπεσθαι 
᾿Αποδεικνύναι, ἐκδεικνύναι . : 
Θνήσκειν, ἀποθνήσκειν, ἐκθνήσκειν. 


189, 140 
141-143 
. 144 


. 145 
. 146 
. 147 
. 148 
. 149 


. 151 


χὶν Contents. 


SECTION 
᾿Αποκτείνειν, κατακτείνειν ὁ. Ξ : ο A : : . 152 
Τελεῖν, ἀποτελεῖν, ἐκτελεῖν. - 5 - . 153, 154 
᾿ἘΕκφεύγειν, ἀποφεύγειν. 2 ὃ A . 155 


ἘΕξηγεῖσθαι, ἀφηγεῖσθαι. Ξ 5 ; A ° ὃ . 156, 157 
᾿Αποφαίνειν, éxpalvew . : : : : ὃ - : . 168 
᾿Αποδιδόναι, ἐπιδιδόναι. : : 5 : : . 109. ΤῸ" 161 


᾿Αποτελεῖν, ἐπιτελεῖν. : ὃ Ξ : : : : . 162 
᾿Απαιτεῖν, ἐπαιτεῖν ἥ . 108 
Neither the Greek, nor the English, isa τι ἢ for the othe . 164 
᾿Απὸ and ὑπὸ : ὃ 2 ; : , : : . 165 


CHAPTER XIV. 
éts AND ἐν. 


*Ets, ev; these two prepositions linked with ἐκ by law of contrast. 166 


*Ets, into ; its primitive and secondary uses . ; τ . 167, 168 
*Ers and ἐν; discrimination . : : ᾿ A - 5 . 169 
᾿Εισβολή, ἐμβολεύς, ἐν τῷ εὐωνύμῳ, ἐπὶ Tov εὐωνύμου. 710; 171 
Ἐμβάλλειν, ἐισβάλλειν; ἐμβολή, προσβολή. : : 5 Be 
᾿Ἐισβάλλειν, ἐμβάλλειν, continued : : 3 3 : . 178 
Ἔμβιβαζειν, εἰσβιβάζειν, their difference ὃ : : ἧ . 174 
Ἔνδηλος, ἔκδηλος. : : : : : : . Lib ἀπὸ, ΠῚ 
Ἐκφανής, ἐμφανής 5 ὁ : 3 . 178, 179, 180, 181 
Ἐκδεικνύναι, ἐνδεικνύναι : : Μ - . 182 
Ἐγχειρεῖν and ἐπιχειρεῖν, ΠΕ ΤΣ deduetively : : : . 183 
The deduction confirmed by usage : : : δ 2 . 184 
Τυγχάνειν, ἐπιτυγχάνειν, ἐντυγχάνειν. : : : : . 185 


CHAPTER XV. 
περὶ AND ὑπέρ. 


Followed by the Genitive . : : : . δ : . 186 
Followed by the Accusative . : 5 Ξ . . : lod 


Contents. 


Περὶ followed by the Dative; ὑπὲρ never; the reason . 


Discrimination resulting from original suggestion in space . 


Applied to a passage in Homer 


CHAPTER XVI. 
περὶ AND ὑπὲρ IN COMPOSITION. 


Intensive force 
Apparent contradictions 
Περιμένειν, ἀναμένειν, καταμένειν 


XV 


SECTION 


. 188, 189 


190, 191 
. 192 


. 193 


: oe 195 


. 196 


Περιμένειν, changed to ἀναμ, used of the same ee εἶδ reason of 


the change . : ᾿ 


CHAPTER XVII. 


ARE PREPOSITIONS INTERCHANGEABLE? . 


CHAPTER XVIII. 
ἀμφί, ON BOTH SIDES OF, AROUND, ABOUT. 


Its original meaning; compared with περὶ 


CHAPTER XIX. 
πρό, BEFORE, IN FRONT OF. 


Its original service 
Πρὸ and dmép—their high service Bihically 


CHAPTER XX. 
σὺν AND μετά. WITH, AMONG. 


The discrimination illustrated . : ὁ 


cally 


198-201 


. 202 


. 208, 204 


. 205 


. 206-210 


Xvi Contents. 


CHAPTER XXI. 


διὰ, THROUGH, ACROSS. 


Its primary suggestion; wide field for the Genitive 

Illustration of its use with the Genitive 

Why διὰ is not followed by the Dative. 

Διὰ with the Accusative 

Criticism of the Lexicon on Il. 7: 247, 

Illustrations of διὰ with the Accusative 

Διὰ not always suggestive of the nearer and farther aide 
Aew, προσαγγ-, ἐξαγγ-, παραγγ- 

Δέχεσθαι with διὰ, ἀνὰ, κατά 

᾿Ανακρίνειν, διαγιγνώσκειν, διαφεύγειν 

Διαχειρεῖν, ἐπιχειρεῖν, compared . 


SECTION 
mull 


. 212, 


213 


. 214 
. 215 


διαγγέ- 


515 
. 917, 


218 


« 219 
. 220 
. 221 
. 222 


oust 


THE GREEK PREPOSITIONS. 


CHAPTER 1. 
OF SPACE, AND ITS SILENT TEACHINGS. 


1. Tux preponderance in language of words of 
space gives them in usage rights which are not prima- 
rily their own. As sight is the chief of our senses, 
the things which are seen furnish the chief materials 
in the formation of language. The discourse may 
have passed quite away from the sphere of visible 
things, but the speaker, none the less, borrows his 
words from this old, exhaustless storehouse. We 
speak of a space of time, a circle of years, of the 
stream of time flowing past us, or bearing us along. 

2. The language of space lends itself to morals: 
an upright man, and an upright tower; a straight 
story, and a straight stick, are phrases alike intelligi- 
ble. When a preacher once said: “Laban was a 
crooked fellow, but, then, Jacob was not square in his 
dealings with him,” he chose his words, not for their 
beauty, but for their special fitness to his thought. 

3. By these frequent references in language to 


2 The Greek Prepositions. 


space, and to objects in space, we need not think of 
space through any definition by a physicist, or a meta- 
physician, or in any labored way at all; but as felt 
and realized, everywhere and always, by the unin- 
structed and the unthinking. Every person who 
grows from infancy to maturity comes silently into 
possession of feelings about space and its objects to 
which he may never give utterance—of which he may 
even be unconscious. These feelings seem to have 
no recognition, or very little, in the completed lan- 
guage. But, in the formation of that language they 
have a work to do; they shaped the speech, and, if 
by wise and patient questioning we can find what 
these feelings were, we make a gain in the study of 
the language. It is not in poetry alone that “ more 
is meant than meets the ear.” As sometimes we may 
read between the lines of the printed page something 
that does not meet the eye, so we may find under a 
word meanings that seem alien, and sometimes con- 
trary to its original import—as refracted light is 
changed by the medium through which it passes, and 
the ends it is made to serve. 

4, Language does not, in strictness of speech, ex- 
press thought, it only suggests. It is helpful, never 
adequate—except in the names of abstract numbers, 
and the terms of pure science. It requires in its 
single words that the student use imagination and 
reflection. Without these he may learn the Diction- 
ary and the Grammar, but he will not understand. 


Of Space, and its Silent Teachings. 3 


As we have not the Greek feeling and instinct, we 
must endeavor by reflection, by questioning our re- 
sults, and by repeated trials, to gain for ourselves 
something of the feeling which the Greeks had by 
birthright. 

5. In studying the Prepositions in this spirit, we 
shall have no regard to alphabetical arrangement, nor 
to the number of cases which the prepositions respect- 
ively may govern. Nothing of this chance and 
secondary sort will furnish the opening by which to 
enter the field before us. We shall begin with the 
simplest and broadest notion in Space which Nature 
presents to human experience—the notion of wp and 
down. 

6. A note of explanation, as between the author 
and the student or the critic, may be due here to aid 
in a mutual understanding. In the derived meanings 
of prepositions they are not allowed to dictate by vir- 
tue of their suggestions in space. They point the 
way, and raise the question—the forecasting question, 
that is all. The answer in all cases comes from ex- 
amining the usage as found in the authors. 

Illustrative examples from Greek authors are often 
abridged, or altered, for economy; preserving, how- 
ever, unimpared, whatever is necessary to elucidate 
the case in hand. 


4 The Greek Prepositions. 


CHAPTER II. 


ava AND κατά. UP AND DOWN. 


7. Tue notion of simple motion upward gathers 
to itself in human experience other notions, which 
accompany it by a necessity of nature. iret, such ~ 
motion has a fixed place of departure, namely, the 
surface of the earth. Secondly, the line of such mo- 
tion is into the pathless air, following no prescribed 
track, and leaving no trace behind it. Zhirdly, such 
motion is against a constant power in nature, there- 
fore it requires force to produce it. ourthly, it will 
stop of itself, at some undetermined point, and will 
return. 

In like manner, simple motion downward sug- 
gests notions that go along with it. rst, such mo- 
tion has no fixed, or definite, point of beginning. 
Secondly, it is natural, requiring no force to effect it. 
Thirdly, it has a fixed place of ending. Fourthly, 
the downward moving body remains where it stops. 

8. These notions are not fanciful, or theoretic. 
They do not come from the reading of books, or 
through study of any sort. They are given in the 
common experience of human life; and every boy 
big enough to throw a stone knows them as well as 
a philosopher. In many minds they may never have 
come into distinct consciousness; but they are, none 
the less, there, doing their work; and, beyond a 


Ava and κατά. Primarily Adverbial. 5 


doubt, they have had a share in the formation of 
every language in the world. 

Our present study is to see what share they have 
had in the formation of one small part of the Greek 
language. 


CHAPTER III. 


ava AND κατά. PRIMARILY ADVERBIAL. 


9. Tur grammatical term Adverb, when applied 
to notions of space, is best explained by comparing it 
with the term Preposition. This last word—from pre 
pono—earries the suggestion that it is placed before 
another word—that other word being a substantive or 
pronoun. This phrase, preposition and noun, are at- 
tached to the verb, the leading word in the sentence, 
to complete its meaning in that place. But there is 
another term, Adverb, that by its form shows that it 
is the complement of the verb. What then is the 
difference? On what ground may the same word be 
in one place a Preposition, and in another place an 
Adyerb? It isan Adverb when the noun needed to 
complete the sense is understood from the nature of 
the case without being spoken. When we say, to drive 
on, meaning to drive forward, we call on an adverb ; 
but it may be made a preposition by pressing for its 
covert meaning; it means, to drive on the ground 


6 The Greek Prepositions. 


before you. In the phrase to look around, we call 
around an adverb; but if we say look around you, 
it means the same, but we call around a preposition. 
These examples show how these two parts of speech 
trench on each other’s ground, and by what an easy 
device one may sometimes be changed into the other. 
The naming in these cases is less important than the 
interpretation, for the last, if correct, will be sure to 
lead to the first. 

10. As designations of motion simply wp and 
down, ava and κατὰ have only an adverbial force; 
and they are no more than this in many expressions 
of space where they are followed by a noun, and are 
called prepositions. In the phrase, Holding a wreath 
up on a golden staff, ava σκήπτρῳ (Il. 1:15), the 
preposition is adverbial, the Dative case being the 
usual case to denote definite or fixed position. In 
the phrases, ἀνὰ ρόον, up stream; κατὰ poov, down 
stream ; ava κλίμακα, up stairs; κατὰ κλίμακα, down 
stairs, the nouns appear as objects respectively of ava 
and κατὰ ; but these words are still adverbial in force 
—the accusative case being the natural case to express 
the distance passed over. 

11. In the expression, He sent the shaft, κατὰ 
στῆθος, straight against the breast, the character of 
the act helps us to the meaning as much as the prep- 
osition; κατὰ suggests a straight motion, as a stone 
dropped in the air falls straight, and the accusative is 
the usual case to mark the point where the action ter- 


Ava and κατὰ Primarily Adverbial. γι 


minates. So, to shoot an arrow, κατὰ σκοπόν, is to 
send it straight against the mark, it can not fail to 
hit, and a machine might do this. The fact of straight 
motion, terminated by the mark, exhausts all there is 
in the expression. But the phrase, to shoot an arrow, 
κατὰ σκοποῦ, does not mean straight agaist the mark ; 
it means to shoot at it with the design to hit wt. It 
may hit, or it may miss, and still be sent, κατὰ σκοποῦ. 
An engine can not do this, for it has no brains. He 
who shoots, κατὰ σκοποῦ, will make allowance for the 
fall of the arrow, that is, its deflexion by gravitation ; 
and, for a side wind, if there be one. The Genitive 
here is causative, showing the action of the mark on 
the shooter, inciting to his endeavor. This makes the 
phrase perfectly clear. It is not, as the Lexicon says: 
To&evew κατὰ σκοποῦ, “ to shoot at, because the arrow 
falls down upon its mark.” This is misleading. It 
would imply that the end of the arrow’s motion was ᾿ 
the mark. This is not asserted. The end of the 
arrow’s motion was the mark, if it was lucky enough 
to hit it; if not, it was something else which it did hit. 
The phrase suggests not the end of the arrow’s motion, 
but the end of the shooter’s shooting, namely, to Azt 
the mark. So, in the words to pour water, κατὰ χειρός, 
upon the hands, the pith of the phrase is not to show 
the way the water runs on the hands, but to show how 
the careful servant that had the water behaved to the 
guest. If the water had been running on the hands 
from a spout, κατὰ χειρός would not have been used. 


8 The Greek Prepositions. 


We have been led unawares into positive state- 
ments about cases, and these statements may seem 
dogmatic. They are not dogmatic at all. We have 
simply accepted the hint of Nature, and following that 
hint we find we have in hand just the phrase that 
meets the case. The shaft sent κατὰ στῆθος, straight 
to the breast, goes no whit straighter than a stone goes 
when falling freely to the ground. The στῆθος is in 
the line of the shaft’s motion through its whole course, 
just as the point finally struck by the stone falling 
freely is in the line of the stone’s motion through its 
whole descent. We have here the direct object, and 
of course in the accusative case. 

The phrase would be just the same if the object 
thus struck were not aimed at, or were not even seen. 

But in aiming at a mark the object acts first on 
him who throws, inciting and directing his act; it is 
the point of departure, or cause or source of that in- 
citement, and therefore must be in the genitive. 

We should not encumber ourselves with the 
thought that in actual experience things thrown up 
are not commonly thrown straight up, and therefore 
can not come straight down. This is pertinent in 
treating of projectiles; but the natural imagination 
pictures wp and down as perpendicular. 

He went on board, ava νηὸς ἔβη, not that ἀνὰ with 
the genitive means on, but, he went up, and the 
thing calling forth and determining the action was 
the ship. 


ay 


Ava and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 9 


12. If the students asks, Why dwell on discrimina- 
tions in the thought that can not be expressed in 
translation? It would be a sufticient answer, if there 
were no other, to say: It is for this very reason they 
are presented and pressed on the attention. This is 
the way to escape from bondage to words; to learn 
how to treat them as our servants and helpers, not 
our masters. Thought is nimble, words are clumsy 
and slow; the student should patiently learn the best 
that these last can do as interpreters of the first. 


CHAPTER IV. 


18. ἀνὰ AND κατά. MEANINGS DERIVED FROM ANALOGY. 


As objects naturally fall by the law of gravitation, 
the actions of men, when performed according to their 
proper law, have an analogy to motion downward, 
and are often designated by the aid of the preposition 
κατά. The proper law for a judge is to decide justly, 
κατὰ δίκαιον. The proper law for a witness is to 
testify truly, that is, κατ᾽ ἀλήθειαν. Cyrus saw that 
the Greeks were conquering all before them, τὸ καθ᾽ 
ἁυτούς. The picture to the imagination is that of 
falling on the enemy. To a Greek phalanx charging 
the enemy in battle, the onward rush was as natural 
as the falling of a stone; hence, to picture this in 

2 


10 The Greek Prepositions. 


words, κατὰ is called on to do its part. Do not fail 
to see the picture—more than a picture—a picture in 
motion. Do not encumber your memory with the 
formula that xara sometimes means before. This 
would hinder more than it would help. Take into 
your thought the whole phrase, in this and in all like 
eases; seize the picture it presents to the imagination ; 
express this in the best English you can command, 
and your work is done. 

A high authority translates τὸ καθ᾽ αὐτούς, the part 
over against them ; this has a show of careful literal- 
ness, but the life and motion are all gone, good for 
the posts of a gate-way, over against each other, but 
poor for a battle. So much comes from misdirected 
nicety, from looking at each word by itself, and try- 
ing to make it do duty all alone. 

Demosthenes says: ζῶμεν τὸ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς αὐτόυς, let 
us live in our own proper way; the way of Mara- 
thon, and Salamis, and the noble times of the past, 
when each man did his duty. Here is a picture of 
motion along the path of a nation’s life and history. 

14. Do not be startled if you find yourself using 
wp where the Greek has κατά, as in this: there is 
no way over the mountain but κατὰ ταύτην τὴν ὁδόν, 
by that road, along that road, or up that road, for 
the road was up hill over the mountain. But because 
that was the natural way, the Greeks made xara serve 
the turn, drawing it over from its original meaning 
downward, to serve a sense quite its opposite. See 


᾿Ανὰ and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 11 


Anab. 4:2, 8, Hearing the trumpet εὐθὺς ἵεντο ἄνω 
κατὰ THY φανερὰν ὁδόν, they moved swiftly up along the 
open road, the road led up hill, κατὰ points to the 
fact that that was the natural road for travel. See also 
4:6, 11, where κατὰ points to a road that led up- 
ward. So, τοξεύειν κατὰ τινός does not mean to shoot 
Srom above, but to shoot with the aim to hit, in what- 
ever direction that may be; κατὰ here points to the 
end in the actor’s purpose, just as primarily it points 
to the end of motion in space. 

15. As xara is used to denote the natural way of 
a thing, so it is used of the natural place or sphere of 
one’s activity (Hdt.). The Egyptians are a singular 
people; the women cultivate the fields, the men with- 
in doors weave, ou ἄνδρες κατ᾽ ὀίκους ὑφαίνουσιν. War 
is carried on by land, by sea, κατὰ γῆν, κατὰ θάλατταν ; 
the men of our times, οἱ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς ἄνθρωποι, that is, 
the people whom we meet, come upon in our daily 
life. 

16. We will now place ava and κατὰ side by side. 
We read (Il. 1:53), that for nine days arrows of 
Apollo were sent nto the army, ἀνὰ στράτον. Each 
of these arrows cut its own path in the air, made its 
own flight, and found its own place to stop. These 
are marks of upward motion—hence ava. 

Under this experience of the divine displeasure, 
the Greeks offer sacrifice; Agamemnon orders them 
to make a lustration; and they toiled at this through- 
out the army, ov τὰ πένοντο κατὰ στράτον (Il. 1 : 312- 


12 The Greek Prepositions. 


318). This cleansing was the predetermined end of 
the command; there was no spot in the army that 
was not embraced in the command. It has an analogy 
to downward motion, as the shooting has an analogy 
to upward motion. To exchange the prepositions 
would destroy the picture in either case. 

Hounds pursued the game through the woods, 
χῶρον av ὕλήεντα; they do not know their path, but 
find or make it as they go—like a body thrown upward. 

The horse-tamer compels the wild horses to go 
along the road, καθ᾽ ὁδόν. The road is the known 
way ;—the path of a body freely falling is known: it 
is straight downward. 

To stand up to a fight, ἵστασθαι ἀνὰ pdynv,—ava 
is here doing its proper work; nothing is more un- 
certain in its end than a fight, or more sure to call 
forth at each moment of its progress the whole power 
of the actor. 

When Darius first made war against the Greeks 
(Hdt. 6:48), he sent messengers into Greece, ava τὴν 
“Ἑλλάδα, to demand earth and water. It was a new 
country ; they explored it as they went, and did not 
know the end of their journey till they came to it— 
like motion upward, tending to some undetermined 
point of stopping; hence the preposition ava. But 
when Xerxes, at a later day (Hdt. 7 : 1), was preparing 
for his great invasion, he sent to his subject cities, 
κατὰ πολείς, for their contribution of men and sup- 
plies. These cities were known, and the demand was 


"Ava and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 13 


in accordance with former usage. The same father 
of history tells us that, when a King of Sparta dies, 
the magistrates send messengers through Laconia— 
their own country, well known, the journey com- 
pletely determined beforehand, like the path of a 
falling stone; therefore κατὰ Λακονίκην. 

17. From the above cases we may discriminate 
between the phrases ava tas πόλεις and κατὰ τὰς 
πόλεις. The first suits the action of a traveler or 
explorer, to whom the cities are not known before- 
hand, and who does not find the end of his journey 
till he comes to it. Such action is ike upward mo- 
tion—the end is not known beforehand. The second, 
κατὰ Tao πόλεις, implies a knowledge of the cities 
before they are visited ; this is analogous to downward 
motion, having its end predetermined. A stranger 
traveling through all the rest of Greece, ava πᾶσαν 
τὴν Ἑλλάδα (Hdt. 6:86, 1). Here are three things, 
in this stranger’s journey, like upward motion; he 
did not know his road, but found it as he went; he 
did not know how far he should go, nor where he 
should stop. Again (Hat. 5: 102), the fugitives were 
scattered, ava τὰς πόλεις, each one going where he 
pleased ; like immigrants coming into a new country 
to seek new homes, each for himself. But— 

** When wild war’s deadly blast is blown, 
And gentle peace returning,” 
then the soldiers return to their homes, κατ᾽ ὀίκους, 
each one knows where he is going to stop. 


14 The Greek Prepositions. 


18. If we have taken our steps wisely thus far, 
we can now walk a little by our own light; and say 
that, when William the Conquerer sent his officers 
among the cities of England to find out their re- 
sources, and so make up the Doomsday book, they 
Went ava τὰς πόλεις ; but when afterwards the tax- 
gatherers went through the cities, with all the re- 
sources catalogued, they went κατὰ τὰς πόλεις. 

In order to be very plain, let us suppose a case 
from the drudgery of modern life. A messenger, 
with printed notices in his hands of a popular enter- 
tainment, is instructed to leave one at each house in 
the town. There are many houses in the town—not 
so many notices; what does he do? He distributes 
them as far as they will go, that is, ἀνὰ τὰς οἰκίας. 
But on a subsequent day, with more notices than 
there are houses, he can be ordered to distribute them, 
κατὰ τὰς οἰκίας. In the first case the end of the dis- 
tribution was not known beforehand, but was found 
by coming to it—therefore ava; in the second instance 
the end was determined beforehand—therefore κατὰ. 

These little words, ava and κατὰ, can lend them- 
selves to describe the joys and sorrows of childhood. 
When, on a glad anniversary, all are in expectation 
of gifts, and there are not enough of these to go 
round, they can be distributed only ἀνὰ τὸυς πᾶιδας ; 
a wiser love would have provided for a distribution 
κατὰ Tous πᾶιδας, and then all would have rejoiced 
together. 


oy ee eee 


*Ava and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 15 


19. Both ἀνὰ and κατὰ are used with numerals, 
but with a difference. “Ava is used when the nu- 
meral denotes a group made up for that occasion only ; 
κατὰ, when the numeral denotes a well-known group, 
as a dozen, a score—the group being thought of as a 
large unit. Luke 9:14, make them sit down by 
Jifties, ava πεντήκοντα, because the number fifty was 
a group made up for that occasion only; the limit of 
the group was realized by counting—no one knew 
where he belonged till he had been counted. But 
in the Anab. we find groups of fifty formed under 
different circumstances, and for a different end. 
They were wanted for daily service, were officered 
and named, and were handled like large units. These 
acted κατὰ πεντηκοστῦς. Once being made up by 
counting, ἀνὰ πεντήκοντα, they were afterwards 
_ handled by their technical name, πεντηκοστῦς. 

We may say καθ᾽ ἕν, but not ava ἕν, for in think- 
ing of one the end is not approached from the begin- 
ning, but is contained in it; and so the Greek lan- 
guage contains καθ᾽ ἕν, but not ava ἕν. 

20. The phrases ava κράτος and κατὰ κράτος are 
both used ; and we are told by some authorities that 
they may be used interchangeably, because wp and 
down carry our thought over the same line. This is 
mere groping; it neglects to note what is peculiar 
to these motions respectively, and leads to grave errors 
in translation. Free motion upward diminishes in 
speed till the last ounce of the impulse that sent the 


16 The Greek Prepositions. 


object is exhausted, and the motion ceases. Pre- 
cisely analogous to this is motion along the ground, 
as running, when the utmost effort is put forth at 
each moment, without regard to the future. The 
natural end of such running is the exhaustion of the 
runner, as the natural end of a stone’s motion thrown 
upward is the exhaustion of the force that sent it. 
This is not properly using the strength, but wasting 
it. To run κατὰ κράτος is to run according to the 
strength, to run as the runner can hold out. In a 
race of a hundred yards one may start ἀνὰ κράτος, 
but if he do this in running a mile, he will surely 
be beaten, unless his competitors are as foolish as 
himself. The rowers in a boat-race husband their 
strength, knowing that they have a hard pull before 
them; they row κατὰ κράτος ; but if they prosper, 
and approach the end with plenty of reserved strength, 
they may wish to show off, and finish with a spurt— 
this last is ἀνὰ κράτος. 

21. Let us now bring this distinction into the 
light of a Greek narrative. On the day of the 
battle of Cynaxa (Anab. 1:8) a messenger arrived, 


riding at full speed, his horse bathed in sweat, — 


ἐλαύνων ava κράτος, ἱδρδυντι τῷ ἵππῳ. We cannot 
miss the meaning of ἀνὰ κράτος here; the rider did 
not spare his horse. Let us go on a little further in 
the story. The Greeks broke the Persian array in 
front of them—r0 καθ᾽ ἁυτόυς, were thrown out of 
line by rapid running, recovered themselves, and then 


"Ava and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 17 


—éyrav0a—they began to pursue xara κράτος, calling 
out to each other not to run fast, μὴ θεῖν δρόμῳ, but 
to keep their ranks. Here it is equally plain what 
κατὰ κράτος means. They were to advance so as to 
keep their line, and so as they could hold out. Sup- 
pose now that these prepositions were interchanged ; 
look at the picture; the messenger coming along 
κατὰ κράτος, at a steady pace, such as his horse could 
keep up all day; and the Greeks, once before thrown 
into disorder by rapid running, repeating their mis- 
take, as if they could not learn anything from their 
own experience ! 

In another place, the barbarians, assaulted in their 
strong hold, make their escape, fleeing ἀνὰ κράτος, in 
disorder, each one for himself, and at his quickest, as 
is the way of barbarians when retreating. 

Let us look at another picture. Thucidides in- 
forms us that, after the disaster at Syracuse, the 
Athenians were greatly depressed, fearing that the 
enemy would next bring the war into their territory 
with all their power, κατὰ κράτος. A wise nation 
going to war does not hurry. It plans, and com- 
bines, and keeps the end ‘ever in view—just as the 
emphatic point of downward motion is its end. He 
who acts ἀνὰ κράτος starts off at the top of his 
strength, without regard to what comes after. 

22. Καθ᾿ ὅμιλον, av’ ὅμιλον, among, into, through 
the crowd. 

We have in Homer a story of a man who went 


18 The Greek Prepositions. 


καθ᾽ ὅμιλον, and of another man who, on the same 
day, and into the same crowd, went ἀν᾽ ὅμιλον ; and 
we are to examine, and see if the actions differed, so 
as to invite and require the use of these prepositions 
respectively (Il. III). The Trojans and the Greeks 
made a truce, with the condition that Menelaus and 
Paris should fight as champions for the two sides 
respectively ; and thus decide the whole war. 

Before the truce, however, on the same day, Paris 
had come forward alone and challenged the bravest 
of the Greeks to fight with him. Menelaus came 
forth to meet him; this took away his courage, and 
he slunk back again into the crowd of Trojans, αὖτις 
καθ᾽ ὅμιλον ἔδυ Τρώων. Reproached for his cowardice 
he rallied for the fight ; the truce was made, and the 
combatants met. Paris was worsted, was on the 
point of being dragged away as a captive, when 
Aphrodite rescued him, and carried him unseen to 
his home; and Menelaus, supposing him to be among 
the Trojans, went here and there among the crowd 
to find him, dv’ ὅμιλον ἐφοίτα él που ἐσαθρήσειεν (Il. 
3:36, 449). 

23. Now let us compare these two actions, and 
see what the preposition does in each case toward 
completing the picture. 

Paris goes, first, back to his own place, among the 
Trojans (he had been out of his usual place). He 
goes back as a stone, lifted out of its place, and left 
free, goes back; secondly, he went spontaneously, as 


δὲ 
| 
| 
Jd 
4 | 
1 
- 
4 
ἢ 


"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 19 


a stone falls; thirdly, he went to stay, and would 
have stayed if he could, as a stone lies where it falls. 
We have then, in Paris’s action, three marks of down- 
ward motion; and the Greek mind by instinct took 
the preposition whose primary meaning was down. 
Let us now look at the action of Menelaus. rst, 
he went away from his natural place—he went from 
the Grecian army, where he belonged, to the Trojan ; 
secondly, he did not know how far he should go—he 
was to go till he could find Paris; thirdly, he was 
going to return. All these are characteristics of up- 
ward motion (see 7, 8). 


CEPA, ν- 
ava AND κατὰ IN COMPOSITION. 


24. A ship sailing from a fixed place, the coast, 
forth into the pathless sea, has an analogy to an ob- 
ject sent up from the fixed surface of the earth into 
the pathless air; this invites the employment of the 
preposition ἀνά, and the action of the ship is denoted 
by the word ἀνάγεσθαι. 

By a like analogy, to sail from the pathless sea to 
the fixed land is expressed by κατάγεσθαι. The Gre- 
cian reader or hearer may never have seen a ship, or 
stood by the sea-side; but he has a model of thought, 


20 The Greck Prepositions. 


in his experience from boyhood, when he threw stones 
into the air, that prepares him to understand ἀνάγεσθαι 
and κατάγεσθαι without dictionary or study, and with 
a picturesqueness for which the English has no equiv- 
alent —not for want of words, but for lack of the 
quick imagination to interpret them. Language is so 
poor in its resources that nimble thought borrows the 
words up and down, and makes them suggest motion 
along the surface of the earth; but there is an analogy 
that justifies the boldness. 

25. When the Ten Thousand Greeks took service 
under Cyrus, the Younger, the expedition was called 
an ἀνάβασις, not because they went into a higher 
country, but they went from their known home to 
a region unknown. Their return home was, by a 
like analogy, called κατάβασις. Thue. 6:16, To the 
Olympic games J sent seven chariots, ἑπτὰ ἅρματα 
καθῆκα ; the end of the sending was fixed and known, 
like the end of free downward motion. It was the 
city where, on the appointed day, the races were to 
take place; the place of the games, and the roads 
leading to it all well known. The races were subse- 
quent, separated from the sending by intervening 
time, and are not embraced in the verb καθῆκα. 

᾿Ανιέναι, to release, from the bonds of sleep (Il. 2: 
34), εὖτ᾽ ἄν σε μελίφρων ὕπνος avin, when honeyed sleep 
shall release thee. The man released—let up—from 
sleep goes forth of his own free will. Also, to send 
forth to the uncertain chances of battle (II. 20: 118), 


. τι δ )ιήν ge Fy ats OS 
OE PSPS ee Sr ae καὴν 


"Ava and κατὰ in Coneposition. 21 


ἀνῆκε Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων, Phebus Apollo hath sent him 
forth. Note the uncertain issue of the action in both 
cases. 

26. Kailew, to burn, ἀνακαίειν, to begin to burn, to 
kindle. In motion upward there is one fixed point, 
and only one—the beginning. So, in a fire, there is 
one thing fixed—the beginning; beyond this all is 
uncertain, whether it will die out or become a con- 
flagration ; κατακαίειν, to burn up, consume; the pict- 
ure, to the Greek, was to burn till the burning came 
to an end, for want of fuel; the English expression 
suggests that the fuel has all gone up in flame. 

27. ᾿Ανέχειν, to hold up, as τὰς χεῖρας, the hands, τὸ 
φῶς, the light; ἀνέχεσθαι, mid, to hold one’s self up, 
as against something that would overpower, or crush 
—hence to sustain, bear, endure (Anab. 1: 7, 4), ἂν δὲ 
ταῦτα ἀνάσχησθε, if you can endure this—the noise 
of their shouting, that is, if you can hold yourselves 
up against it; κατέχειν, to hold down, hold fast, de- 
tain ; (Il. 15:186), of he shall keep me back against 
my will, ἐί waxéovta καθήξει ; (Il. 11 : 702), These (the 
horses) the king detained, ἄναξ τοὺς ἵππους κασχεθε = 
κατεσχε. But ἀνέχειν has a meaning to restrain, to 
check (Il. 23:426), dvey’ ἵππους, check the horses 
(Hdt. 1:42); πολλαχῆ ἄνισχον ἐμεωυτόν, 7 often 
checked myself; how can ava and κατὰ, so wide 
asunder, lend themselves to meanings so near alike? 
κατέχειν means to hold back from acting at all; 
ἀνέχειν, to check an action already going on. When 


22 The Greek Prepositions. 


a thing, or a creature, is quite at rest, its natural state 
is down, κατὰ (men and stones are here alike); and 
to keep it from acting is to keep it where it is—that 
is, down, κατέχειν. But when a creature acts, whether 
man or beast, his acting becomes, for the time, his 
natural state, and anything contrary or opposed to 
this finds expression in ava, the opposite of κατά. 

28. Παύεσθαι, to pause ; ἀναπαύεσθαι implies that 
the suspended action will be resumed when the cause 
that interrupted it shall be removed; as a falling 
stone, if stopped, will fall again if the power that 
stopped it is withdrawn. Homer says (Il. 17 : 550), 
winter suspends the works of men, ἀνέπαυσε ; the 
works will go on again when spring returns. If the 
stopping is final the verb is καταπαύειν. 

29. Mévew, to remain, ἀναμένειν, to remain for a 
time, that is, till some transient ground for remaining 
is taken away—to await, wait for, as to wait for the 
day, ἀναμένειν ἠῶ; ava suggests transiency, because 
the power that holds up a thing from falling is nat- 
urally thought of as transient; καταμένειν, to remain 
_ permanently (Cyri. Insit. 1:4). His mother went 
' away, but Cyrus remained (κατέμενε) and was edu- 
ἡ cated there. 

30. Δέχεσθαι, to receive; ἀναδέχεσθαι, to catch, 
arrest something on its flight—-as arrows upon a shield, 
blows upon the body: καταδέχεσθαι, to receive per- 
manently, as principles in the soul; banished citizens 
to their homes ;—these are received to remain, as 


"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 23 


stones are received on the ground to remain—but 
blows received on the shield, or on the body, do not 
stay. I]. 5:619, the shield cawght many a javelin, 
ἀνεδέξατο. We may say, then, that when a company 
of ball-players adopt rules for their playing, the verb 
is xatadéyecPar—these rules are to be permanent; 
but when in practice one of them catches the ball in 
its flight, the verb is ἀναδέχεσθαι ;—the ball does not 
remain up. 

31. To know, γυγνώσκειν ; καταγιγνώσκειν, to know 
what one has a special interest in knowing. The act 
κατα always implies some standard of judgment al- 
ready in the mind; and the result of the act is always 
to place the object in a class. This is like downward 
motion, tending to a preappointed end. ᾿Αναγυγνώσ- 
xew (1) does not mean, as the Lexicon says, to know 
well, know certainly ; (2) it does not denote a moral 
judgment, which xatay often does; (3) it suggests 
difficulty of knowing, and in this fact it has an analogy 
with upward motion ; (4) the knowledge it predicates 
is pictured as springing from the shrewdness and wit 
of the knower. The student who faithfully studies 
the famous 47th Prop. in Euclid, and so knows it, has 
not a knowledge expressed by ἀναγ. 

32. As motion up, ava, is contrary to nature, that 
is, to the natural power of gravitation, and requires 
force to effect it, actions which compel things, or per- 
sons, contrary to their natural state, or bent, are de- 
scribed by aid of this preposition. Zhe spear’s point 


24 The Greek Prepositions. 


was bent bach, ἀνεγνάμφθη αἰχμή (Il. 8 : 848). Un- 
rolling the book, ἀναπτύξας τὸ βίβλιον (Hat. 1 : 125). 
᾿Αναπτύσσειν τὸ κέρας, to wheel back the wing (Anab. 
1:10, 9). The natural state of the spear is to be 
straight; that of the book, to be rolled up; that of 
the wing of an army, to be in line. ᾿Αναπείθειν, to 
persuade one against his natural bent; those who 
could not be persuaded by arguments (λόγοις) were 
won over by money, ἀνεπείθοντο χρήμασιν (Cyri. Inst. 
7:5). Xerxes was at first indisposed to make war 
against Greece, but Mardonius won him over, ἀνέ- 
mee (Hdt. 7:6). “Avaywpéw, to go back. Going 
back is opposed to the natural instinct, whether bodily 
or mental. Men and beasts alike are constituted to 
go forward. To make them go back requires force, 
as truly as it does to stop a falling stone, or lift it 
from the ground ;—hence ava. 

L take back, ἀνατίθεμαι, what I said before (Mem. 
1:2, 44); a man’s natural bent is to stand to what he 
has said. 

33. Neve, to nod; Hector’s crest nodded this 
way and that, as he stood before his wife (Il. 6 : 470); 
κατανεύειν, to nod and thereby confirm, ending all 
debate (Il. 1: 514, 527, 558). 

᾿Ανανεύειν, to nod upward, i. e., in refusal (II. 6: 
311). We moderns do not indicate vefused by an up- 
ward or backward motion of the head; perhaps the 
Greeks did not, but used ἀνὰ in its derived sense— 
of resistance, opposition—which on second thought, 


4 
᾿ 
Ϊ 


Re Φουα. I 


OO Oe ae 


"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 25 


you will observe, amounts to the same thing, for re- 
laxing the will lets the head fall forward—arousing 
it in opposition throws the head back (see See. 7, 3). 
In this way we may understand the phrase in Xen. 
Convin., ch. 3, μάλα σεμνῶς ἀνασπάσας TO πρόσωπον, 
pulling a long face ;—ava suggests the constraint 
used to draw the features into the desired expression, 
though that was very different from drawing the 
face up. 

34, ᾿Αναδεῖν, to bind up, as twigs into a fagot, or 
bundle ; flowers into a wreath, or chaplet. What is 
there in such an action analogous to something in 
upward motion? The force that overcomes resist- 
ance: ava carries this suggestion, just as wp does, 
fortunately, in the English phrase to bind up, bind 
up tight, the preposition wp serves the same purpose. 
The band used in binding up the hair of women is 
called ἀναδέσμη. Crowning the victors with garlands, 
στεφάνοις avadav νικῶντας---ἃ8 if the garlands were 
fillets for binding the hair. Karadety, to bind fast to 
something fixed. Od. 14: 845, ἐμὲ κατέδησαν ἐὐσέλ- 
po ἐνὶ νηὶ, they bound me fast in the well-benched 
ship. A thing ἀναδούμενον may be moved; not so a 
thing καταδούμενον. 

35. The compound κατάρχειν invites attention. 
It seems to combine incompatible notions. How can 
ἄρχειν, which means fo begin, join to itself κατὰ, 
which suggests finality? Kardpyew means to begin 
an action which has been completed in thought before 


26 The Greek Prepositions. 


it is begun in act; as to begin a battle that has been 
planned beforehand; to begin a public sacrifice, or 
celebration, that is to proceed by a prescribed order. 
The beginning of an action that has not been thought 
out before is not expressed by κατάρχειν. Cyri. Inst. 
1:4, 4, Cyrus, when a youth, would select out, ἐξῆρχεν, 
those exercises in which he knew himself to be defi- 
cient, and lead, κατῆρχεν, his associates through the 
exercises—leaping on the horse, throwing the dart, 
etc. The course of exercises was all in his mind 
when he began—hence κατά. 

Mem. 2: 3, 11, If you wished to win over one of the 
men of mark, so that, when he had an entertainment, 
he should invite you, how would you act? J would 
begin, κατάρχοιμι, by inviting him, when I had an 
entertainment. The end was in view from the be- 
ginning—hence κατά. Socrates began a song, ἦρχεν 
ὠδῆς, there was no forethought called for, only 
memory; therefore the simple verb is used. After- 
wards he began his argument anew, κατῆρχε; his 
argument was directed at every step to reach the 
forethought conclusion. 

36. Whenever the end is mentally seen from the 
beginning, then the beginning is naturally expressed 
by κατάρχειν, whether it be beginning of a campaign 
in war, or of a dinner with its prescribed courses; 
or of a public celebration, or a school examination, or 
a day’s work planned by the master, on the farm, or 
in the shop. 


As nae 


"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 27 


37. Aéw, to want, to lack; καταδέιν, to come short 
of a fixed standard (Hat. 2:134). He left a pyramid 
much smaller than his father’s, 7 lacked twenty feet, 
εἴκοσι ποδῶν καταδέουσαν.- κατὰ points to the pyra- 
mid of Cheops—the greatest; and, hence, the ac- 
cepted standard, to which other pyramids were to be 
compared. 

88. ᾿Ανὰδεικνύναι, to show by lifting up, or by 
some equivalent token, as the opening of gates or 
doors, that all may see—raising a concerted signal, 
making proclamation: καταδεικνύναι, to discover and 
make known some important truth or art, prized by 
all as a possession (Hdt. 4:42). ‘ Necos was the first 
who made known, καταδείξας, that Libya, Africa, 
was surrounded by water, except...” So Columbus 
was the first who showed, καταδείξας, that there was 
a new world west of the Atlantic. In ancient times, 
“the Carians were the first to show how, καταδείξαντες, 
to bind crests upon their helmets” (Hdt.1:171). In 
modern times, Professor Morse was the first who 
showed how, καταδείξας, to send word across the con- 
tinent in a moment of time. 

39. MavOavew, to learn by inquiry; avap, to 
search into to see what a thing contains. The Lex., 
to learn again, to inquire closely, is in error. The 
word means neither the one nor the other of these. 
When one examines an ore, without prepossession, 
and finds successively the minerals it contains, his 
finding is expressed by ἀναμανθάνειν ; but if, starting 


28 The Greek Prepositions. 


with the belief or hope that the ore contains gold, he 
searches and finds that, his finding is expressed by 
καταμανθάνειν. : 

Cyrus, fond of learning, was ever inquiring of 
those about him how things were, del τοὺς παρόντας 
᾿ ἀνηρώτα-- 8 questions had no settled aim—therefore 
ava (Inst. 1: 4). 

Helen says (Od. 4: 250), I recognized him and 
questioned him, dvnpétwv. She questioned to find 
out everything she could—therefore ava; the things 
which she found were not in her mind till she found 
them. 

L learned, κατέμαθον, that he had poured poison 
into your drink (Cyri. Inst). His learning’ answered 
the one great question in his mind—it was matter of 
life and death for his grandfather, therefore xara. 

The spies having learned, about the army, κατα- 
μαθόντες ; this was the very object they were sent for ; 
it brings the inquiry to an end, as the striking upon 
the ground by a falling stone brings its motion to 
an end. 

Recognizing him, they kill him, καταμαθόντες 
κτανέουσιν (Hdt.) The recognition brings the search 
to an end; their purpose was to kill him when they 
should recognize him. 

When one travels aimlessly in a foreign land, he 
learns many things—this is μανθάνειν. Another trav- 
eler, going with prepared questions, finds the answers 
to these questions; this is καταμανθάνειν. 


"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 29 


40. To search, tnréw; ἀναζητξιν, to examine a 
thing to see what one can find in it. Socrates (Apol. 
ch. 2) says that his accusers charged him with search- 
ing into everything under the earth, τὰ ὑπὸ γῆς ἅπαν- 
τα ἀνεζητηκώςς. What is the force of ava in this 
sentence? It cannot denote upward in space, for 
searching ὑπὸ γῆς denotes motion downward not up- 
ward. "Ava has here its derived meaning, suggestive 
of indefiniteness in the result, as when a stone is 
thrown upward, it cannot be known beforehand how 
far it will go, so ἀναζητεῖν, to search without an idea 
of what you may find. 

If the student be willing for the sake of science 
to accept a very lowly illustration of ἀναζητεῖν, let 
him look at the early scavenger bending over a heap 
of rubbish, hook in hand; or, rising to the dignity of 
history (see Hdt. 1: 137), If the matter were searched 
to the bottom, ἀναζητεόμενα, one of these things would 
be discovered. “Ava in the above cases quite drops 
its primary suggestion of space, and serves the im- 
portant dynamic idea which is affiliated with it. 

41. ᾿Αναλύειν, to set free, as (Od. 12 : 200) ἐμέ δ᾽ ἐκ 
δεσμῶν ἀνέλυσαν, and they set me free from my 
bonds; the result of this act was that he who had 
been bound was now free to go as his own will 
prompts—the will is as free as air. But to det loose 
the dogs upon the game is not ἀναλύειν, for dogs have 
not free will. Zo undo the web, ἀναλύειν, the act 
leaves the threads free and floating. Zo dissolve a 


30 The Greek Prepositions. 


body into its unknown elements, and so find what 
those elements are; or—to take a live example—to 
analyze dynamite, and find what it is made of. 
Karadvew, to separate the known parts of a thing, 
and so destroy the thing, as a bridge, the frame of a 
house, a government. 

42. The verb καθορᾶν is sometimes said to mean 
the same as the simple verb ὁρῶν, and it is said some- 
times to mean to see clearly ; these statements are 
misleading. It means to see what you are looking 
for—what you have a special interest in seeing. If 
one loses a jewel, and searches for it, he may see a 
hundred other things, and ever so clearly; thus far 
his seeing is expressed by the simple verb opav;— 
but, when he sees what he was looking for, it is 
καθορᾶν." 

Xerxes, looking towards the shore, surveyed his 
land forces and his ships (Hdt. 8: 44).. Looking to- 
wards, cabopav—it was in order to see, and thereby 
determine the great question before him, that he or- 
dered the survey. 

The looking was indeed down, from the tower, 
but this is not the emphatic thing in the action. 

Κῦρος καθορᾷ τὸν βασιλέα, καὶ ἵετο ἐπ᾽ ἀυτόν, 


1 Even where the seeing is clear, the indispensable condition justi- 
fying the use of κατὰ is that the seeing answers an important ques- 
tion. In Romans 1: 20, καθορᾶται, the invisible things of Him are 
clearly seen, the seeing answers the most important of all possible 
questions. 


"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 31 


Cyrus sees the king and rushed upon him (Anab. 
1:9). He was peng for the king; the moment he 
saw him, the action of looking for him ceased and 
gave place to another. Here vane looking or seeing 
was not down, but κατὰ is called for none the ee 
the seeing ended a question already in the seer’s 
mind. 

When those in front came upon the height and 
saw the sea, a great shout arose; κατέιδον τὴν θάλ, 
array (Anab. 4:7, 21). Well might a shout arise at 
this long-wished sight. Observe that a little before, 
when the guide promises to lead them to a place 
where they would see the sea, he uses the simple verb, 
ὀψονται τὴν θάλατταν-- 6 had no longing for the 
sight—and so he did not need καθορᾶν to express his 
thought. 

They sent out scouts, to the right and left, and on 
the hills, that, if anywhere they should see an ything, 
m any direction, they should signal it; εἴ mov τί 
ποθεν καθορῷεν onudworev; they went for the sole 
purpose of seeing, therefore κατά. 

It may be said that the looking in this case would 
be a looking down, and that this is all that κατὰ means. 
This is quite a mistake. Even if the looking were 
down, that is not an essential point in the act; it was 
what they should see and not how they should be 
looking when they saw it, that was to determine their 
future action. But it was by no means certain that 
their looking would be down. If, when half way up 


32 The Greek Prepositions. 


the heights, they had seen the enemy on ground above 
them, the action would be καθορᾶν, just as much as if 
they had climbed to ground above the enemy, and 
from there looked down upon them. See (14) κατὰ 
ταύτην ὁδόν. 

48. The Adjective καταφανής is sometimes said to 
mean clearly in sight. This is misleading. If a 
thing is καταφανής, it is in the mind—thought of, 
desired, or feared—before it is seen. The clearness is 
sufficient—and need be no more than sufficient—to 
determine the identity of what is seen with what was 
in the mind before. Anab. 1:6, 1, The tracks of 
horses appeared, ἐφαίνετο ; the sight was unlooked 
for, therefore the simple verb is used. If they had 
been looking for signs of the enemy, the verb would 
have been καταφαίνεται. 

Further on in the narrative (1: 8, 8), as the battle 
drew on, the gleam of spears was visible, here and 
there, through the cloud of dust: visible, καταφανεῖς. 
They were not in fact clearly seen, but they were just 
what the Greeks were looking for—they were seen 
clearly enough to settle the question that was in all 
minds. The glimpse of the spears showed that the 
battle was upon them. 

44, A meteor appears, φαίνεται ; a comet foretold 
and expected appears, καταφαίνετα. 

The day dawns—begins to appear—davagaivetat. 

45. Od. 4:41, They threw before the horses spelt, 
and therewith méxed white barley, ἀνέμιξαν ; a chance 


ἫΝ 


"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 33 


mixture, fulfilling no predetermined end, a little more 
or less of either ingredient does not matter—therefore 
avd. Anab. 7:2, 3, After a time they mixed with 
the people in the cities, and made their home there— 
κατεμίγνυντο. The mixing was final, securing the end 
of peaceful living together. 

Horses mingling in a race, ἀναμυγνύμενοι (Soph. 
El. 715). Not a purposed mingling, but coming 
about by chance, each horse doing his best—hence 
ava. 

1, 24:529, 70 whomsoever Zeus giveth a min- 
gled lot, ᾧ μέν κ᾿ ἀμμίξας (καταμίξας) δοίη Zeds; the 
divine allotments were all measured, placed, and 
fixed in purpose before they passed into fact—hence 
καταμ. 

The méngled blossoms in the field are dvapwyvipe- 
vot; they come by chance, and each grows as it can; 
but the same blossoms in the gardener’s bed, placed 
for harmonious effect, are καταμιγνύμενοι. Stones of 
all colors lying in a box, ἀναμιγνύμενοι ; the same 
stones cut and set in a Mosaic, καταμυγνύμενοι ; they 
realize a picture that was complete in the artist’s mind 
before he put his hand to the work. 

46. Κτείψειν is from a root that means Zo strzke, to 
eut by striking—hence to kill ; κατακτείνειν, to strike 
down, to strike dead, to kill, as in deadly conflict, 
usually implying deadly purpose—not by accident, 
nor in execution of the law. When death comes by 
accident, ne end reached is not the end sought. 


34 The Greek Prepositions. 


In Anab. 4:85, 25, waa ἄκων κατακτανών, the 
natural suggestion that the death was designed is 
forestalled by the word ἄκων. When death comes 
by sentence of the law, the end sought is not the 
death but the vindication of the law—and the 
verb is κτείνειν, sometimes ἀποκτείνειν ; but this 
last carries a special suggestion, which will be. 
treated of in its place. 1]. 6:409, Soon the 
Achaians will slay thee, xataxtavéovow. The kill- 
ing would be in deadly conflict—it would be the 
end sought. 

But see 1]. 15:587, Like a wild beast that hath 
done some evil thing, having slain a dog or a herds- 
man, κύνα κτείνας ἢ βούκολον. The killing was not 
in pursuit of an intelligent purpose —it was from 
blind instinct. 

Od. 16:106, ΚΚατακτάμενος, slain in my own halls ; 
the death was purposed—it was the end sought in the 
act—therefore κατακ. 

Od. 12: 375, “Ot Bods ἔκταμεν ἡμεῖς, we had slain 
his kine. The killing was not the end sought, it was 
the means to the end—the booty—therefore we have 
the simple verb. 

Anab. 1:9, 6, Cyrus had a fight with a bear—he 
suffered much, but at last he killed him, κατέκανε ; 
he meant to kill the bear, and did what he meant. 
It follows, therefore, if this view be correct, that no 
irrational creature can do the act expressed by κατα- 
κτείνειν, for no such creature can form an intelligent 


‘Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 35 


purpose—a purpose limited and complete in thought 
before it is begun in act.’ 

A single passage (Herod. 2:75) seems at first view 
to conflict with this position; but it is, in fact, con- 
firmatory of it. The story is that the Ibises do not 
let the winged serpents pass by them and come into 
the land, but kill them, κατακτείνειν. The Ibis was 
regarded as divine; it was therefore raised above the 
brute condition, and made capable of forming an in- 
telligent purpose—therefore, of doing the act, κατα- 
κτείνειν here is attributed to it. 

41. Θνήσκειν, to die; καταθνήσκειν, to die at the 
hands of one who purposes to kill—the outward act 
fulfilling a purpose formed beforehand; to die not 
by disease, nor by accident, nor by old age, nor by 
sentence of the law. Il. 22: 355, Hector dying, κατα- 
θνήσκων, by the hands of Achilles, who meant to kill 
him. 

Il. 21: 106, Achilles to Lykaon, a suppliant, dze 


thou also, θάνε καὶ σύ :-- κάτθανε καὶ Idtpoxdos 
ἢ 5 ρ ) 


1 Such, at least, seems to have been the Greek opinion, so far as I 
have been able to gather it in reading. Perhaps the reading has been 
defective; but I have preferred not to wait for an impossible leisure, 
but note the point as possibly marking one of the hiding-places of 
Greek thought. 

In any case, the opinion here ventured invites no reference to 
modern Biology; nor does it impair the honors of those rare creatures 
of ancient story—companions of man—inspired or trained— 

“Who bear a memory and a mind, 
Raised far above the law of kind.” 


' 


36 The Greek Prepositions. 


Patroklos also died. Observe how vapid would be 
the phrase if κατὰ were omitted here. It would 
mean only that Patroklos died, as all men die, per- 
haps in his bed. Note also how the imperative, θάνε, 
asks no help from xara; the lifted arm told the pur- 
pose (Il. 21 : 106, 107). 

ll. 7:89, There is the tomb of a champion who 
died in the days of old, whom glorious Hector slew ; 
—died, κατατεθνηῶτος ; slew, κατέκτανε; κατὰ points 
to the deadly conflict which made the fallen hero 
worthy of a monumental tomb. 

48. “Ava and κατὰ may serve to express the same 
general idea through different pictures to the imagi- 
nation. Xen. Cyr. 1:1, Δημοκρατίαι κατελύθησαν, 
democracies have been overthrown; ὀλυγαρχίαι ἀνή- 
ρηνται, oligarchies have been overthrown ;—the first 
suggests the idea of a structure demolished; the sec- 
ond, of a thing taken up and borne away; the idea 
of destruction is virtually in both. 


CHAPTER VI. 
ἐπὶ, ON, UPON. 


49, Evrrytutina is on, or wpon, something by force 
of gravitation. When the object wpon which a thing 
comes, or on which it rests, is named, we have a noun 
in hand, which requires a preposition to introduce it, 


Ἔπὶ, on, upon. 9 


and show its relation to the words before it. This 
preposition is él. The object on, or wpon which 
motion is arrested, is put in the Accusative. To fall 
on the ground, ἐπὶ τὸ δάπεδον, to seat one’s self upon | 
a throne, ἐπὶ θρόνον The picture to the thought is 
that of power passing from the subject of the verb to 
the object of the preposition. The primary power in 
space is that of gravitation; its direction is perpen- 
dicular; and impact, or pressure is its unvarying con- 
comitant. 

50. But not much of human power is spent in a 
perpendicular direction. Men usually employ their 
᾿ strength in movements along the surface of the earth, 
and not in motions wp and down. We must there- 
fore be ready to shift this path of power, if we would 
find ἐπὶ fruitful with human uses, and from perpen- 
dicular make it horizontal, whenever we find the lines 
of action run in that direction. 

51. Before doing this, however, we will note the 
accompanying notions which ἐπὶ always carries with 
it. First, the object which falls wpon another exerts 
power upon it by impact—that is, by the accumulated 
force of gravitation suddenly arrested. Secondly, the 
object that rests ,wpon another continues to exert 
power upon it by the continued force of gravitation 
—in other words, by its own weight. 

These are not ingenious statements, thought out 
to help a theory; they simply state the facts. No 
effort is put forth, no step is taken in the physical 


38 The Greck Prepositions. 


_ world where the power of gravitation does not go 
along with it, aiding, guiding, or obstructing and de- 
feating ;—and ἐπὶ is one of the witnesses in the Greek 
language of this constant, inevitable power. Our 
study is, first, to note the facts; and, then, to draw 
all fair deductions from them. 

52. If now we shift the direction of power, as we 
proposed to do, and, instead of wp and down, make it 
horizontal—along the level earth where living creat- 
ures with man have their home—we do not thereby 
dismiss ἐπὶ, the old witness of gravitation, but we 
take it with us into this new field, and allot to it a 
wider, and more varied service. 

53. The power, ever at work or ready for work, 
is not here the power of gravitation; but, in the 
dumb creatures, it is the animal instincts and habits; 
in man it is the whole range of the passions and as- 
pirations, the hopes and fears that rule his life. But 
in both spheres, brute and rational, ἐπὶ carries the 
suggestion of power of some sort, physical or mental ; 
and the object of the preposition is in the Accusative. 
They came to the river, ἐπὶ τὸν πόταμον, to cross it; 
they came to the city, ἐπὶ τὴν πόλιν, to take it, or 
enter it. 

54. If the movement be a journey from a distant 
place, carrying the suggestion of the purpose and 
hope to reach, rather than of the realization, then 
that distant object is in the Genitive: to sail jor 


>) 


Greece, ἐπ᾽ “Edddbdos; for home, ἐπ᾽ dixov; he began 


°Eml, on, upon. 39 


to lead them into line of battle, ὑφηγξυτο ἐπὶ φάλαγγος 
- ἐπὶ with the Genitive, with a view to bring them 
into. 

The genitive here is causative, suggesting to the 
imagination the thing which incites to the endeavor. 

55. Rest, or position on, if fixed, or definite, is 
expressed by the Dative—the flesh on spits, ἐπὶ 
σχιζῆῇς : standing on the car, ἐπὶ τῷ δίφρῳ; if the 
position is indefinite, somewhere upon, movably, or 
transiently upon, ἐπὶ is followed by the Genitive ;— 
sitting on the shore, ἐπ᾽ ἀκτῆς ; the men carry the 
burdens on their heads, ἐπὶ τῶν κεφαλέων ; the enemy 
are on the mountains, ἐπὶ τῶν ὀρῶν ; he danced on the 
table, ἐπὶ τραπέζης ὀρχήσατο." 

56. Time somewhere within which a thing hap- 
pens is expressed by the Genitive—émi Λέοντος Bact 
λεύοντος, some time in the reign of Leo. 

57. Bearing in mind that whatever comes against 
a thing horizontally, as well as what comes down on it 
by gravitation, exerts power upon it, we are prepared 
to see how first, and last, and all through, ἐπὶ is the 
index of power passing from the subject to the object; 


1 The Genitive here helps to locate by suggesting some near, better 
known thing; it is as the point of departure from the known to the 
unknown; as in Geometry we determine the position of a point from 
its relation to other points whose position is known; as in old English 
Jock of the mill may discriminate from Jock of the hill. 

In the above examples the shore (ἀκτῆς) is known; the persons 
spoken of are located by referring to this known locality; so of the 
mountains, the table. 


40 The Greek Prepositions. 


as, he was sent ἐπὶ τὴν ἀρχήν, to his province, to rule 
it; to go ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα, to their arms, to take them; 
he went ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν, to the door, to open, or shut 
it; they went ἐπὶ τὸ δεῦπνον, to their dinner, to eat 
it; they went ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους, against the enemy, 
to assault them. 

58. The object of ἐπὶ, commonly pictured as life- 
less, may be in fact not lifeless, or passive ; but any 
activity it may have will be derived from the nature 
of the case, and will not be suggested by the phrase 
where it is introduced by ἐπὶ. 

The treatment of ἐπὶ is here suspended, to be re- 
sumed in a comparison of it with prepositions which 
follow. 


GHAPTER, VIL. 
ὑπὸ, UNDER}; ACCESSORY NOTIONS. 


59. Tux notion expressed by wnder, ὑπὸ, takes 
along with it other notions which accompany it by a 
necessity of nature and experience. First, of all it 
carries the suggestion of its correlative on, or over, 
ἐπὶ, or ὑπὲρ. Nothing ean be wnder which has not 
something on, wpon, or over it. 

60. Secondly, this correlation of wnder with on, 
or over, naturally suggests a comparison ; that which 
is wnder is thought of as inferior to that which is on, 


δάκος" 


Ὑπὸ, Under; Accessory Notzons. 41 


or over it. Thirdly, that which is wader is in a de- 
gree withdrawn from the light. As light comes from 
above, that which is wnder something must of neces- 
sity receive a less degree of light than that which is 
over or upon it. It follows from this that ὑπὸ readily 
lends itself to express the notions of retirement, con- 
cealment, deceit. 

61. That which is wnder is naturally thought of 
as passive to the pressure of that which is wpon it— 
sometimes subdued, crushed, destroyed by it; as, for 
example: the blossom wnder the stone that is laid 
upon it; the snail trodden under the foot of the ox. 

62. But that which is wader has some power of 
resistance—and this may become to the imagination 
the leading feature of the picture; as, Milo the athlete 
stood under the weight of the full-grown ox. Here 
the power of life countervails the downward pressure 
of gravitation. But lifeless things may give the same 
suggestion—as, for example: the post wnder the cor- 
ner of the house supported the wall above it. 

63. We will next look at the cases which ὑπὸ 
governs; these are just as many as the ways in which 
the position wnder can be presented to our thought— 
and these are three. 

64. First, the position wnder, ὑπὸ, may be sug- 
gested without regard to the coming into that posi- 
tion, or the leaving of it. 1]. 2:307, We were offering 
hecatombs beneath a plane tree, ὑπὸ πλατανίστῳ 5 
under the wall, i. e., near the wall, ὑπὸ τείχεϊ (Il. 


42 The Greek Prepositions. 


21:277). These pictures, and those like them, nat- 
urally take the dative case after ὑπὸ, as the case ex- 
pressive of position. Sometimes the verb implies 
motion, but the act looks forward to the position and 
rest that shall follow; Il. 14:24, He shall place a 
footstool for the feet—literally, wnder the feet, ὑπὸ 
ποσίν. 

The dative after ὑπὸ sometimes expresses the au- 
thor, instrument, or agent; Od. 3:304, δέδμητο δὲ 
λαὸς ὑπὸ αὐτῷ, and the people were subdued under 
him. 1]. 15:687, ἐφόβηθεν ὑφ᾽ “Extopt, they were 
put in fear by Hector. 11. 11 : 121, Themselves also 
were filled with fear before the Argives, ὑπ᾽ ᾿Αργείοισι. 

65. Secondly, the position wnder, ὑπὸ, may be the 
end of a motion in space; as, ὑπὸ σπέος ἤλασε μῆλα, 
he drove his flocks into the cave. This form of ex- 
pression takes the accusative case after ὑπό. 

As the dative after ὑπὸ is sometimes used with 
verbs of motion, so the accusative after ὑπτὸ sometimes 
denotes position merely. 1]. 2: 603, ᾿Αρκαδίαν ὑπὸ 
Κυλλήνης ὄρος αἰπύ, Arcadia along under rugged 
Cyllene. In such instances the objects are usually 
large, inviting the mind to traverse space in thinking, 
e. g., the earth, the air, the light. 

66. The third and last form of connecting things 
by the preposition ὑπὸ, is where the object of ὑπὸ is 
the starting point of the motion (Od. 9 : 141), a spring 
of clear water flowed out from a cave, ὑπὸ σπείους. 
This form calls for the genitive case. II. 9: 248, to 


Ὑπὸ, Under ; Accessory Notions. 43 


rescue the sons of the Achaians from the war-din 
of the Trojans, ὑπὸ Τρώων ὀρυμαγδου ; ὑπὸ, from 
under. 

Motion into or under is followed by the genitive 
in the phrase ἐγὼ τὸν μοχλόν ὑπὸ σποδοῦ ἤλασα 
πολλῆς, 1 thrust the stake into the burning embers ; 
the σποδός, embers, is not pictured as a unit, but as a 
loose mass, affected by the stake only at the point where 
the stake was thrust in—it is a partitive genitive. 
So (Od. 11:52), he had not been buried beneath the 
wide-wayed earth, ὑπὸ, any where beneath—six feet 
of it was space enough 

67. Ὑπὸ with the genitive suggests primarily the 
prevalence of its object over some one else, as if that 
other were prostrate under it. But it is used in gen- 
eral to mark the agent of an action after passive verbs. 
While primarily picturing, as it were, to the eye, the 
victories and subjugations of war, its wide embrace 
serves for actions the most kindly and beneficent. 
Mem. 2: 2, 8, Whom can we find more greatly bene- 
fited by any than are children by parents? ὑπὸ 
γονέων ; 

68. These two prepositions, being correlative, in- 
vite to some extent a treatment side by side, that 
each may be seen in the light of the other: ἐφιέναι 
χεῖρας τινὶ, to lay hands on one (Od. 20:89); ὑφιέναι 
θρῆνυν ποσίν, to place a footstool under one’s feet 
(Il. 14 : 240). 

Wine drives even the wise man to sing, ἐφέηκε 


pac The Greek Prepositions. 


(Od. 14: 464). 70 each dam he put its young to suck, 
ὑπ᾽ ἔμβρυον ἧκεν ἑκάστῃ (Od. 9:309). He hath sent 
woes upon the Argives, ἐφῆκεν (Il 1: 4456). Sub- 
mitting the body to pains, ὑφεῖσα (Kur. Med. 24). 
Observe in the above example the suggestion of 
power in ἐπὶ, and of subordination in ὑπὸ. 

69. "Apyew, to be first in doing a thing; as to 
lead is characteristic of a ruler, the word comes nat- 
urally to mean to rule; ἐπάρχειν, to rule over— 
exercise authority upon a particular district; χώρας 
ἐπάρχω πολλῆς, 7 rule over a large country (Xen. Cyr. 
4:6, 2); ὑπάρχειν, to be first in an act thought of as 
the cause or incentive to other acts—like a founda- 
tion. Socrates (Mem. 2:3) is urging two alienated 
brothers to love each other; 2 ἐδ a great provision 
Sor friendship, πρὸς φιλίαν μέγα ὑπάρχει, to be sprung 
from the same parents. 

This word is very appropriate in the criminations 
and recriminations of those engaged in war—each 
side charging the other with beginning the quarrel. 
The word suggests the foundation in man’s fortune 
and life—that on which the structure of character 
rests. 

It is used in expressing acts of kindness, where he 
who begins by doing kind actions, ὑπάρχει εὖ ποιῶν, 
receives the like in return. Anab. 2:3, 23, If any 
one will begin with showing us kindness, ὑμᾶς εὖ 
ποιῶν ὑπάρξῃ, we will not be outdone by him, at least 
to the extent of our power, in making kind returns. 


Ὑπὸ, Under ; Accessory Notions. 45 


But evil for evil is more common in history. Hdt. 
1:5, 1 shall point out the one who began aggressions 
against the Greeks, τὸν ὑπάρξαντα ἀδίκων ἔργων ἐς τοὺς 
“Ἕλληνας. Hdt. 4:1, Darius wished to be revenged 
on the Scythians, who, in days gone by, had invaded 
Media and so began the quarrel, ὑπήρξαν ἀδικίης. 
In like manner the French and the Chinese, in this 
year of grace, 1884, are each charging the other with 
beginning the wrong, ὑπάρξαι ἀδικίας. 

το. ᾿Ἑ πάγειν, ὑπάγειν (Hdt. 2:108), The multi- 
- tude whom he brought upon the land, ἐπηγάγετο ; to 
bring war on a people, ἐπάγειν πόλεμον ; to bring on 
woe, πῆμα, servitude, δουλείαν, ὑπάγειν ζυγὸν ὕππους, 
to lead horses under the yoke. The end to be reached 
is to have the horse wnder the yoke, i. e., harnessed to 
the chariot—the leading is preparatory, and subor- 
dinate—important only as a necessary condition to 
thatend. This is analogous to ὑπὸ σπέος ἤλασε μῆλα, 
where the end to be gained is to have the flock in the 
caye—the driving is a necessary condition to that end. 
In Xen. Venat. 4:4, we find ἄγειν τὰς κύνας, to take 
the dogs out for exercise ; the act is its own end; but 
when the same act is subordinate to a further end, 
namely, to find the game, we find ὑπαγειν τὰς κύνας 
(4:5); but further, when they find the haunt of the 
boar, they set the dogs forward to rouse him, ἐπάγειν 
τὰς κύνας. The compound ὑπάγειν is also used to 
present a picture analogous to the water running out 
from the can, ὑπὸ σπείους ; ὕπαγε, away from before 


46 The Greek Prepositions. 


me! literally, away from wnder me! For, to a living 
creature, motion forward against what is before him 
is as natural as striking on what is under it is to a fall- 
ing stone. Ἐπὶ and ὑπὸ play their parts in this 
horizontal direction, as they did primarily in the per- 
pendicular; motion against something is ἐπὶ, and 
that which obstructs it is ὑπὸ. Il. 5: 885, He assailed 
me with the might of a god, but my swift feet bore 
me out of his reach, ὑπήνεικαν, literally, bore from 
under. Anab. 3:4, 48, τοῖς μὲν ἔμπροσθεν ὑπάγειν 
παρεκαλεύετο, He called on those before him to move 
on, ὑπάγειν, i. e., to make room for those pressing on 
behind them. 

71. The English preposition wnder does not bear 
transference to this horizontal direction. We can 
say “stand from under”; this suggests perpendicular 
motion; but, if we change the line of motion in the 
threatening object to horizontal, the Greek could say, 
as before, ὑπάγετε, but the English preposition wnder 
will no longer serve. 

Matt. 18:44, He goeth and selleth all that he 
hath, and buyeth that field; he goeth, ὑπάγει; the 
emphatic point is the buying—the gozmg is merely 
preparatory; it helps the picture, but is not essential 
to the thought—in grammatical form the two verbs 
are co-ordinate, but in thought there is a clear sub- 
ordination. More commonly the subordinate action 
is expressed by the participle. Anab. 1:8, 15, Xeno- 
phon riding up, so as to join Cyrus, asked him if he 


Ὑπὸ, Under ; Accessory Notions. 47 


would give any orders; riding up, ὑπελάσας. To 
translate this ding up gently, or slowly, does not 
commend itself—it does not suit the business of the 
hour. To say that ὑπὸ here points to the fact of 
Xenophon’s subordination in rank to Cyrus is need- 
less—that goes without saying; it is inept moreover, 
there being nothing in the story at this moment to 
call for a reference to that fact. It seems to denote 
simply the subordination of Xenophon’s act at the 
time to the act of Cyrus—as a question for instruc- 
tion is necessarily subordinate to the answer expected. 

72. Μένειν, to remain, abide, wait; ὑπομένειν, to re- 
mam under, to bear, sustain, endure ; the actor is sta- 
tionary, and acts as in resistance to a downward press- 
ure. Od. 1: 410, οὐδ᾽ ὑπέμεινεν γνώμεναι, he did not 
wait for us to know him—did not bear the pressure 
of our inquires. Plato Epis, Z bore bitter reproaches, 
διαβολὰς δυσχερεῖς ὑπέμεινον. Epis. Heb., If ye en- 
dure chastening, ὑπομένετε. 

᾿Ἐπιμένειν, to remain on. Cyr. Inst. 1:4, The 
horse stumbled upon his knees, and nearly threw 
Cyrus over his head, yet he held on, ἐπέμεινεν. 
When connected with rational acts ἐπὶ suggests the 
ground or basis of the act, and points forward to the 
result. The rain continued falling, ἔμενε πίπτων: 
Peter continued knocking, ἐπέμενε κρούων ; Peter 
had a motive and an object. The dog continued 
barking, ἔμενε ; the creditor continued dunning his 
debtors, ἐπέμενε. Od. 17:275-277, Either do thou 


48 The Greck Prepositions. 


go, while I am left behind; or do thou remain, 
ἐπίμεινον, and I will go; ἐπὶ points to the purpose of 
the action, which was in the minds of both. 

Od. 11: 351, Let the stranger be patient, much as 
he desires to return, and watt, ἐπίμεινον, until the 
morrow, till I shall have filled the full measure of the 
gift. The waiting is for an object in the mind of 
the speaker—namely, to make up the full measure of 
the gift. Had the waiting been a halt upon a march 
to be resumed as a matter of course on the morrow, 
the verb would not be ἐπιμ, but ἀναμ (see Sec. 7). 

So, Il. 6:340, Wazt, ἐπίμενον, till I put on my 
armor; ἐπὶ looks forward to the object to be gained 
by waiting—namely, the putting on of the armor; it 
is a note beforehand showing that there is an object 
to be gained by waiting. It is therefore in the 
thought a connective, and would have no right to be, 
but for the phrase that follows. The preposition and 
the following phrase are in fact correlatives. That 
we cannot suggest this play of thought in a neat 
English phrase is true here, as in countless other ex- 
amples. But let us not refuse to learn the Greek 
because we cannot always translate it exactly into 
English. 

73. If the conqueror puts the yoke upon the con- 
quered, ἐπιτιθέναι, the conquered bear τέ, ὑποφέρειν ; 
if in battle one side moves upon the other, ἐπιέναι, 
ἐπέρχεσθαι, ἐπιπίπτειν, the other side hold the rela- 
tion ὑπό, under. If they accept the assault, we say 


Ὑπὸ, Under; Accessory Notions. 49 


ὑποδέχονται; if they flee from under it, ὑποφεύγου- 
ow. 

The study of ἐπὶ is suspended here to be resumed 
in a comparison of it with the preposition πρός. 

14. The compound ἐξηγεῖσθαι (see by anticipation 
Prep. éx) suggests that the leading has its source in the 
subject of the verb; ὑφηγεῖσθαι presents the leader 
as subordinate to some other person, or power, or to 
some ulterior object of his own; he leads as the 
colonel under instructions leads his regiment into 
battle; he leads as the hare leads the hounds; as the 
fugitive leads his pursuer; as the pioneers, marking 
out and clearing the road, lead the army. 

Thue. 1:78, If you are determined to have war, 
we will do our best to avenge ourselves on you, in 
the way in which you set ws an example, ὑφήγησθε: 
the threat of retaliation places the leading of the 
enemy under a law, or condition—namely, that as 
they did so it would be done to them. Their leading 
is no longer free—it is not ἐξηγεῖσθαι, but is under 
the shadow of this threat, which would tend to tem- 
per and restrain it; it is ὑφηγεῖσθαι. 

To draw them up in order for battle, ὑφηγεῖσθαι 
(Anab. 6:5, 25)—i7o recognizes a subordination ; it 
was an act preparatory to the inevitable battle before 
them—like the leading out, ὑπάγειν, of the dogs pre- 
paratory to a hunt. 

Compare with this Hdt. 1: 151, They resolved in 
common assembly to follow the Ionians, whatever 


50 The Greck Prepositions. 


way they should lead, ἐξηγέωνται ; here the Ionians 
act from their own arbitrary choice; the other party 
accept their action and conform their own to it. 

Anab. 2:1, 18, ὁ δὲ Κλέαρχος ταῦτα ὑφηγεῖτο, 
ποῖ in this Clearchus was covertly trying to lead, 
Φαλῖνος δέ ὑποστρέψας, but Phalinos evading, dex- 
terously shunning—vt7o0, away from under. 

Xen. Equest., The colt is trained to go before his 
trainer, keeping the road. To go before is ἡγεῖσθαι, 
but here the colt’s action is under control of his 
trainer; hence the verb is ὑφηγεῖσθαι. 

75. It is not implied that he who leads, ὑφηγεῖται, 
is necessarily the inferior of the two. Soph. ΕἸ. 1502, 
ὑφηγοῦ, lead the way, go first; this is said by Aegis- 
thus to Orestes, in whose power he was, and at whose 
hands he was soon to meet his death. It simply pro- 
poses that Orestes lead the way in retiring from the 
present scene—an act preparatory, and hence sub- 
ordinate to the act which was soon to follow—his 
swift coming death. 

So the gods lead men, ὑφηγοῦνται, by suggestions 
drawn from objects and creatures around them (Xen. 
Cyri., Bk. 3); man’s reason and will are here pictured 
as the great actors; no one is convinced against his 
reason, or made good against his will. 

76. Crito 16, Let us then rest our discussion, 
Crito, and proceed to act in this way, since in this 
way God is leading us, ἐπειδὴ ταύτῃ ὁ θεὸς ὑφηγεῖται. 
The divine leading was through suggestions to the 


Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 51 


reason, and the free will, which must at last, as 
sovereign, decide the question of life and death. It 
is just because that Socrates in this stress made the 
sovereign choice to die that he is a monument for 
remembrance and cheer, through the ages, for all 
tried and tempted souls. 


CHAPTER VIII. 
πρὸς, TO, TOWARDS, NEAR TO, FACE TO FACE. 


77. Frw things are more wearisome than to read 
about πρὸς in the Lexicon. There are endless exam- 
ples, but no interpretation—no clew to guide the in- 
quirer. It is said to mean motion to or motion from, 
or rest in ὦ place, and many things besides. The only 
resource is in guessing, and trying, till one’s common 
sense tells him he has guessed right. 

78. We shall prosper best in this study, if we 
regard πρὸς as introducinggus at once into human re- 
lations. The prepositions ἀνὰ, κατὰ, ὑπὸ, and ἐπὶ, in 
their primary meanings, may have a pretty wide range 
of use without any reference to human beings. Not 
so πρὸς, if our view is right. It presents, primarily, 
the picture of one person facing another. It is the 
servitor of communion between man and man—the 
usher that introduces one soul to another; whence is 


52 The Greek Prepositions. 


rendered possible the family, society, the state." From 
this first meaning πρὸς comes naturally to mean near 
to, this being the relation in space of persons who 
meet face to face. 

79. When man meets his fellow man it is prima- 
rily for converse, and implies a reciprocal action on 
the part of the person met; πρὸς is the preposition 
that connects the action with its personal object in 
this form of human intercourse. Ἐπὶ presents its 
living object as if it were lifeless; πρὸς, hever—and 
often it makes alive to the imagination what is, in it- 
self, lifeless; this ἐπὶ never does. To say πρὸς Τρῶας 
μάχεσθαι implies that the Trojans fight back; to 
shoot πρὸς τεῖχος implies that the wall has something 
to do—namely, to repulse the shafts thrown against 
it; the wall is in fact the defensive armor of the city 
—it was built to do the work of defense. 

80. Πρὸς στῆθος βάλλειν, to shoot against the 
breast, implies that the στῆθος makes, or may make, 


some sort of response to the stroke of the dart. Both | 


shield and breastplate are there to aid in giving that 
response. But, you may ask, might not one say in 
this case ἐπὶ στῆθος βάλλειν ξ Certainly he could, if 


1 As the relations of persons very greatly surpass in interest the 
relations of things, it has seemed truer, as well as easier, to think of 
πρὸς from the start as subserving these higher relations. A different 
supposition would not affect any important fact in the study—and 
therefore invites no discussion here. For the derived meanings, be- 
sides, in addition to, see Sec. 103. 


28 ple pow bomen 


Πρὸς, 70, Towards, Near to, Face to Face. ὅδ 


he were pretty dull—just as a painter, if dull, may 


τ put two objects into a picture and not harmonize 


them. Πρὸς harmonizes the picture, it is a note be- 
forehand, showing that the act is to have its issue in 
some quality residing in the object of the preposi- 
tion; or, to put it briefly, ἐπὶ στῆθος βάλλειν would 
be quite proper, if you kill the man before you shoot 
_ at him. 

81. To attain to virtue, ἐπ᾽ ἀρετὴν, if you are think- 
ing especially of the “pre endeavor it costs; but if 
yom are thinking chiefly of the happiness it brings, πρὸς 
ἀρετήν (Xen. Conviv., ch. 4). The discouraged soldiers 
(Anab. 3:1) had no pitt to go to their arms, ἐπὶ τὰ 
ὅπλα; No spirit to go on guard, πρὸς τὰς φυλακάς. 
In going to their arms they went to do something, 
namely, to take their arms; in going on guard they 
did not go primarily to do anything; they were to 
wait and watch till others should act, i. e., the enemy, 
and call forth the watcher’s action in response—hence 
πρός. To expose one to the cold, πρὸς ψῦχος ; it is 
the cold that acts on the man. 

82. Not only is something of reciprocity uniformly 
suggested by zpos, but in many cases the chief action 
in a phrase is suggested to the imagination not in the 
subject of the verb, but in the object of this preposi- 
tion. It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks, 
πρὸς κέντρα λακτίζειν. Here it is not the one who 
kicks, but the thing kicked that, for the imagination, 
does the chief work. In the realm of mechanics ac- 


54 The Greek Prepositions. 


tion and reaction are equal, but in the realm of feeling 
they may be very different. 

83. In the story of Ulysses in the cave (Od. IX), 
the Cyclops, grasping two of the visitors, swung them 
high and dashed them on the ground, ποτὶ (πρὸς) γαίῃ 
κόπτε. Here the action, to the imagination, passes 
quite over from the subject of the verb to the object 
of mpos—from what the two visitors did to the floor 
to what the floor of the cave did to them—é« δ᾽ 
ἐγκέφαλος χαμάδις ῥέε. 

84. Hector (Il. 6 : 454) bewails the coming fate of 
Andromache, that in her captivity she would weave, 
πρὸς ἄλλης, at the command of another woman ; that 
is, standing before her face and receiving commands ; 
—it was not the weaving, but the domineering com- 
mand that was in the husband’s thought. Anab. 5: 
7,1, Xenophon says: “I hear that some one is ac- 
cusing me of deceiving you: therefore hear me by 
the Gods, πρὸς τῶν θεῶν "---πρὸς, an appeal to the 
Gods as if standing face to face before them, who 
will respond to his words with vengeance if he does 
not speak the truth. Il. 6:524, 5, I hear bitter re- 
proaches from the Trojans, πρὸς 'Γρώων, they reproach 
me to my face. If the reproaches came to his ears 
through a third party the Preposition would not be 
πρός. 

85. In the narrative from Od. ΙΧ we read that 
Neptune shattered the ship, dashing tt against the: 
rocks, πρὸς πέτρῃσι βαλών. The ship met the rocks 


Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near To, Face to ace. δῦ 


to its own hurt, therefore πρός. They leaned their 
chariots against the walls, πρὸς évérva—leaned them 
that they might be supported—the walls reacted and 
held what was leaned against them. 

86. They fight against each other, πρὸς ἀλλήλους ; 
for ἐπὶ forbids the reciprocation which ἀλλήλους al- 
ways carries with it. There is one phrase, however, 
ἐπ᾽ ἀλλήλοισι κέχυντο, they were heaped on one an- 
other, where ἀλλήλοισι, always reciprocal in its sug- 
gestion, is the object of él, which never lends itself 
to the idea of reciprocation. What shall we say? 
This, namely: that the Greek and the English trans- 
lation each describes a common fact by a short phrase, 
impossible to be taken literally (for those at the bot- 
tom were not heaped upon others), but so suggestive 
roughly of the fact that its inaccuracy is pardoned for 
its brevity’s sake. 

87. The nymph Calypso (Od. V. 149) went to 
Ulysses, ἐπ᾿ ’Odvaja—she went to do a work—to dis- 
miss him: therefore ἐπὶ; had she gone for converse, 
the preposition would have been πρὸς. 

88. Near the above passage (v. 157) we read that 
Ulysses gazed fixedly on the unplanted sea, πόντον ἐπ᾽ 
ἀτρύγετον Sepxéoxeto. He was hopeless, for he did 
not even wipe his tears away—did not even look 
around in hope of seeing some ship that might take 
him on board. Had he been hopeful enough for 
that, the preposition would have been πρὸς, suiting 
the word to the mental state. 


56 The Greek Prepositions. 


89. But, it may be asked, did the Greeks think 
of all this? Probably they thought nothing about it, 
but spoke from habit—just as a well educated person 
uses, in English, the words shall and will, correctly 
from habit, while a foreigner learning English must 
reflect. Just as little did Xenophon need to bethink 
him of the distinction between ἐπὶ and πρὸς, when 
he used them both, each in its place (Anab. 3:4). 
Think, soldiers, you are on your way now for Greece, 
to your children and your wives, ἐπὶ τὴν “Ἑλλάδα, 
πρὸς τοὺς παῖδας καὶ τὰς γυναῖκας. The preposition 
πρὸς here is alive with the picture of the soldier’s 
return to his home—meeting those who meet him at 
his door. 

90. Achilles bewailed his friend, the slain Patro- 
klus, placing his hands wpon his breast, ἐπὶ στήθεσσιν; 
if he had laid his hands upon the breast to find if the 
heart was still beating, the preposition would have 
been πρὸς (Il. 18 : 317). 

91. The way to happiness, ἡ ὁδὸς ἐπ᾽ εὐδαιμονίαν, 
also πρὸς εὐδαιμονίαν ; but the former, where happi- 
ness is found at the end of a course of labor, or search ; 
the latter, where it comes of itself, to one who refuses 
to take pains about it (Mem. II. 1). 

92. Xenophon directs the horse-buyer to examine 
first the feet of the horse he would buy; and then to 
go to the rest of the body, πρὸς τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα. He had 
nothing to do to the horse, but rather something to 
receive—namely, an impression good, or bad, as he 


τῶ 


τς 


Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 57 


looked and examined. If Xenophon had been in- 
structing the groom in his duties, and had told him, 
when he had finished one part to go fo the rest of the 
body, he would have said ἐπὶ τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα. Ob- 
serve, in every case, ἐπὺ denotes some form of power 
—if only the power involved in a steadfast gaze— 
passing from the agent to the object; πρὸς suggests 
some form of reciprocal action, or a susceptibility for 
it, passing from the object to the agent. 

93. To go against the enemy, ἐππὶ τοὺς πολεμίους ; 
also πρὸς τοὺς moAeulovs—but, the former, when the 
enemy are at a distance, are at rest, or are retreating 
—that is, are pictured as passive to the attack; the 
latter, when the assailants have come so near to the 
enemy as to stimulate them to face about and fight 
back (Cyr. Inst. 1 : 4). 

94. When (Il. VI) Hector met Andromache at 
the Scean gate, the nurse held the child on her breast, 
ἐπὶ κόλπῳ; a burden, a charge resting on the nurse ; 
but when afterward the father— 

“ Stretched his fond arms to clasp the lovely boy, 

The babe clung crying to his nurse’s breast,” πρὸς κόλπον, 
for shelter, safety, solace, from the nurse. 

95. Lest thou dash thy foot against a stone (Matt. 
4:6). The thoughtful student will now be able to 
determine whether it is ἐπὶ λίθον, or πρὸς λίθον, by 
asking himself, which was specially affected by the 
blow—the foot, or the stone? Which did the prin- 
cipal a 


58 The Greck Prepositions. 


Great stones which were rolled off the precipice, 
fell upon the rocks, and were dashed in fragments. 
Upon the rocks, is it ἐπί τὰς πέτρας, or πρὸς Tas 
πέτρας ? (Anab. 4: 2, 3). 

If thou shall not watch I will come on thee, ἐπί ce 
(Rev. 8 : 3)—the object is to inflict punishment, hence 
ἐπί. But in the same chapter we read: I stand at 
the door, and knock; if any man hear my voice, and 
open the door, Z will come in to him, ἐλεύσομαι πρὸς 
αὐτόν. The object is communion ; the visitor and the 
receiver are sharers in a common joy (Rey. 3:3, 20). 

96. How shall I s Bay: 42} ΠΝ going to the fire” ? 
You may say εἶμι ἐπὶ τὸ πῦρ, or εἶμι πρὸς τὸ πῦρ, ac- 
cording to what your object is in going ; if you go 
to warm yourself, it will be πρὸς τὸ πῦρ; if you go 
to stir the fire, it will be ἐπὶ τὸ πῦρ. 

97. When a fire breaks out in a city, great num- 
bers come together—in two classes—firemen and spec- 
tators; the one class come ἐπὶ τὸ πῦρ, the other πρὸς 
τὸ mwvp—though neither class come either to warm 
themselves or to stir the fire ;—but one class come to 
act upon the fire, the other to receive an impression 
from it. 

98. If at breakfast you break your egg by striking 
your knife on the egg, the Greek preposition for on 
is ἐπὶ; if you break it by striking the ege on the 
edge of your glass, the Greek preposition is πρός. 
You tread on a flower, ἐπὶ ; you tread on a nail, πρός. 
These examples are not arbitrary dictations; they 


Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 59 


are direct deductions, and are confirmed by all the 
usage. 

Anab. 1:8, They struck with the shields upon the 
spears, Tats ἀσπίσι πρὸς τὰ δόρατα ἐδούπησαν ; they 
did not wish to do anything to the spears, but to call 
forth a sound from them, to frighten the enemies’ 
horses. Α little farther on we read, Cyrus saw the 
king (καθορᾷ) and rushed upon him, ἵετο ἐπ᾽ αὐτόν. 
It need not be said that πρὸς could not be used to 
describe this action. 

If one strikes upon a bell with a hammer to mark 
it, or to break it, the word for wpon is ἐπὶ; if he 
strikes upon it to call forth its tone, the word for 
upon is πρός. 

99. In New Testament (Matt. 7: 24), of the house 
built wpon the rock, ἐπὶ τὴν πέτραν, we read “the 
winds blew and beat wpon that house,’ προσέπεσον 
τῃ οἰκίᾳ éxeivy—the point being to mark what resist- 
ance the house made to the assault ;—therefore πρὸς, 
not ἐπί. 

100. Xen. Oecon. 7: 23, God, methinks, has pre- 
pared the nature of woman for works and cares with- 
in doors, ἐπὶ ἔργα καὶ ἐπιμελήματα ; for he made her 
with a body and spirit less strong against cold and 
heat, πρὸς ρίγη καὶ θάλπη :---ἐπὶ introduces things to 
be done; πρὸς, things to be endured. The object of 
ἐπὶ is the passive recipient of the action; the object 
of πρὸς is the door of the action. 

101. They encamped on the sea-shore, near the 


60 The Greek Prepositions. 


harbor, ἐπὶ τὸν ἀυγιαλὸν πρὸς TO λιμὲνι; ἐπὶ With gen. 
indefinitely upon—somewhere on, πρὸς with dat. near. 

Note here how each of the prepositions has its © 
own special meaning, which cannot be expressed by 
the other. “Em? is primarily the servitor of gravita- 
tion ;—it pictures downward motion arrested. Sec- 
ondarily, therefore, it serves all motions that are 
natural in their place, and thus have an analogy to 
downward motion. Now, an army marching toward 
the sea is stopped at the shore as surely as a falling 
stone is stopped by the earth on which it strikes. 
IIpos could not carry this suggestion ; nor could ἐπὶ 
serve the turn of πρός. The thing which moves on, 
ἐπὶ, does not stop till it strikes; it cannot denote 
merely near to. In the expression: “ Behold I stand 
at the door, ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν, and knock,” the preposition 
and noun, along with the verb, does not of itself give 
the picture of impact, but it is pregnant with that 
notion, and the notion is made explicit by the added 
words καὶ κρούω. 

102. In the implied converse of two persons, sug- 
gested by πρὸς, we observe that there is no impact, 
nor contact ;—the parties introduced by πρὸς are only 
near to each other; hence this preposition comes to 
express the idea of nearness; πρὸς τῇ γῇ ναυμαχεῖν, 
the ships fought near the land (Thue. 7:34). When, 
however, Xenophon says (Hell. 4: 8, 1), αἱ πρὸς θαλ- 
λάττῃ πόλεις, he does not mean cities near the sea, 
but on the sea: why then did he not use ἐπὶ Be- 


Ἐπὶ and πρὸς tn Composition. 61 


cause the cities did not act on the sea, but received 
from the sea their supplies—the reciprocal action is 
the leading idea. 

103. We observe again that, in the implied con- 
verse suggested by πρὸς, the parties are thought of as 
on equal terms. They are in the relation, then, that 
prepares them to be counted, or added ;—not fractions 
only, but all things in the world must be brought to 
a common denominator before they can be counted 
or added. The preposition πρός, therefore, carries in 
its own right the meaning beszdes, in addition to ;— 
an idea which no other preposition properly has or 
can have, not even ἐπὶ, whatever the Lexicons may 
say. That which is on (ἐπὶ) something is not in the 
same plane with it a thought, any more than it is m 
space. See note at page 130. 


CHAPTER IX. 
ἐπὶ AND πρὸς IN COMPOSITION. 


104. ᾿Επέχει τί tut, to hold something upon some- 
thing—as, the hand on the sword-hilt, τὴν χεῖρα κώπῃ. 
He holds it there to draw the sword, therefore ἐπὶ ; 
but if, with the sword drawn, he holds his fingers to 
the edge to test its keenness, the preposition for ¢o 
would be πρός. The holding may be in the way of 
restraint ; this will put the second object in the Geni- 


62 The Greek Prepositions. 


tive, ἐπέχειν Tov δρόμου, to cease from running, lit- 
erally, to hold on, that is, on the ground where you 
are. Let us now pass to mpoceyew. 

The Persians beseiged Barca nine months, mining 
underground, as well as fighting above. A wise man 
discovered their secret work in this way: He laid a 
brazen shield on the ground, προσέσχε ἀσπίδα πρὸς 
᾿ τὸ δάπεδον (Η αἴ. 4: 200), and applied his ear; wherever 
there was digging going on underneath, he would per- 
ceive it by the murmur of the shield. Here is no 
suggestion of power from the man to the ground, but 
rather the other way—he waited for something to 
come from the ground through the shield to him; 
therefore προσέχειν, not ἐπέχειν. 

105. We can apply the hand to tne door to open 
at, we can apply the ear to the door ¢o listen; in the 
one case the verb is ἐπέχειν, in the other, it is προσ- 
éyew. The physician puts his hand upon an artery 
to stop the circulation, ἐπέχει τὴν χεῖρα ; or, to feel the 
pulse, προσέχει τὴν χεῖρα. 


106. Hdt. 1:53, Croesus sent gifts to the shrine, | 


and thereupon asked for a response, ἐπειρώτα--- ἐπὶ 
points to the ground on which he asked—namely, the 
gifts he had sent. 

107. Socrates being asked, ἐρωτώμενος, said, ete., 
and being asked further, προσερώμενος, he replied 
(Mem. 1:3, 9). Jf 7 shall need any more instruc- 
tion, nv Te προσδέομαι, my grandfather will teach me 
[in it], ἐπιδιδάξει (Xen. Cyri. 1:38), ἐπὶ refers to the 


"Ent and πρὸς in Composition. 63 


need, as the basis or ground of having more instruc- 
tion. 

Zeus bethought him, μνήσατο, of Aegisthus, whom 
Orestes slew; and thinking of him, ἐπιμνησθείς, he 
said ...: when the verb is used the second time, it 
takes on ἐπὶ; this shows what it was in Aegisthus 
that Zeus was thinking of—namely, how he had been 
slain. When the verb was used the first time, that 
fact had not been mentioned, therefore ἐπὶ would 
have been unintelligible; to omit it in the second in- 
stance would render the phrase vapid—it would show 
that the poet had lost himself, and could not follow 
up his own thought. 

108. “Emi sometimes looks forward to a phrase 
immediately following that justifies and requires its 
use. Xen. Conviv. 4:4, All states inguire of the 
gods what they must do, ἐπερωτῶσι τοὺς θεοὺς τί χρὴ 
mouew ; ἐπὶ points forward to τί χρὴ ποίξιν as deter- 
mining the matter on which they inquire. This will 
be made clear if we change the form of the sentence 
without altering the sense, thus: we do not know 
what we must do; let us inquire of the gods, ἐπερω- 
τῶμεν τοὺς θεούς. Here the ἐπὶ plainly looks back to 
the ignorance expressed in the words just before, as 
the basis of the inquiry; just as plainly does it look 
forward in the phrase in its first form. Again (Xen. 
Mem. 1:5), Let us consider, whether he helped them 
any towards this by discoursing as follows, ἐπισκε- 
ψώμεθα, εἴ τι προυβίβαζε λέγων eis ταύτην τοιάδε; 


64 The Greek Prepositions. 


ἐπὶ points forward to the matter they were to con- 
sider. 

109. Again (Xen. Mem. 2:1, 7), Since you know 
the proper rank of each of these classes, have you ever 
considered this, ἤδη ποτ᾽ ἐπεσκέψω, eis ποτέραν, ete., 
into which of these classes you might fitly place your- 
self? ᾿Επὶ points forward to the thought in the fol- 
lowing phrase; just as the word ¢Azs in the translation 
looks forward to the phrase which follows, and serves, 
therefore, in thought, to connect the two parts of the 
sentence ; ἐπὶ does for the Greek mind just what this 
does less neatly for the English mind. Does any one 
think that this is forced and fanciful—a queer sort of 
equation—to make a preposition just equal to a pro- 
noun, so that sometimes one may be substituted for 
the other? If one thinks so, he is more particular 
than the Greeks themselves, for they did this very 
thing. Read again (Mem. 1:2, 10), Βούλεν οὖν καὶ 
τοῦτο σκεψώμεθα, πότεροι. Then, if you will, let us 
consider this, whether, ete. Here we have the equa- 
tion before us, drawn from the same page: σκέψασθαι 
TOUTO; πότεροι = ἐπισκέψασθαι εἰς ποτέραν. 

Heb. 12:15, ἐπὶσκοποῦντες μή τις ὑστερῶν... 
looking (ἐπὶ) to τέ. This is the exact form of the 
thought in the Greek, ἐπὶ looks forward to what is in 
the next phrase.’ 

ΤῸ does not follow that “looking to it” is the best possible trans- 


lation, for the bit of phrase ¢o it has lost cast a little—has become too 
colloquial for the seriousness and dignity of this place. Not every 


κες a 
Le ee 


Ἐπὶ and πρὸς in Composition. 65 


So in Il. 2:198, ὃν ἐφέυροι βοῶντα, ἐπὶ looks to 
- the action expressed by βοῶντα as its basis. He did 
not go about aimless till by chance he met some one 
brawling; but he heard a brawling first, and then 
went for it; ἐπὶ fixes the perspective of the picture. 

Cyri. Inst. 1:3, "Ered érnobe παντάπασι, σύ τε ὁτὶ 
βασιλεὺς foba, oite ἄλλοι ὁτὶ σὺ ἄρχων. You had 
Sorgotten yourselves altogether—thou, that thou wast 
king, and they, that thou wast their ruler. ᾿Ἐπὶ in 
the verb looks forward to what is stated afterwards— 
namely, their difference of rank. This they ought 
not to have forgotten; the fact of self-forgetfulness 
was not general, but limited to one particular thing, 
and ἐπὶ points to that. 

110. Socrates says, in opening his defense: I know 
not, Athenians, how you were affected by my ac- 
cusers; but, for my part, I almost forgot my position 
here, ἐπελαθόμην, ἐπὶ points to the fact that Socrates 
was there to answer for his life. That fact was in all 


translation that is the most literal is therefore the best. The most 
literal may have gathered associations by use that unfit it for the ser- 
vice required—like a messenger stained and soiled by hard travel, 
and so unfit for presentation. We cannot counterweigh a Greek word 
or phrase by an English word or phrase, and call that translation, be- 
cause it is literal. The Greek must first be dissolved in the alembic 
of thought, and that thought then cast into the best form which the 
English allows. So, in the instance above, of ἐπισκοποῦντες, the com- 
mon version, looking diligently, may be thought the best possible, un- 
less the revisors’ looking carefully be thought better, though the Greck 
does not properly mean either dilligently or carefully. 


66 The Greek Prepositions. 


minds, and that made the forgetfulness of it note- 
worthy. To say in translating, almost forgot myself 
is inadequate ;* to say scarcely recognized myself is 
worse, for it amounts only to saying, “they did not 
draw a true picture of me” ;—and it misses entirely 
the characteristic humor and pathos. 

111. Cyri. Inst. 1:4, And Cyrus learned readily 
all that had been taught him (about rough ground) ; 
but when he saw the deer he rushed forward, ἐπιλα- 
θόμενος πάντα, forgetting everything about it; ἐπὶ 
refers to the cautions he had received about rough 
ground; it does for the Greek mind just what is done 
for the English mind by the added words about γ7. 
One is the English way, the other the Greek way of ᾿ 
doing the same thing (Od. 19:13). I have laid up 
the weapons, lest when heated with wine you quarrel, 
and shame the feast, for iron itself draws a@ man 
thereto, ἐφέλκεται. 

112. When Kebriones, the charioteer of Hector, 
fell, struck by a stone from Patroclus (IL 16 ; 775), he 
lay stretched at his length, al? his skill forgotten, 
λελασμένος ἱπποσυνάων ; it was the forgetfulness of 
death—his work done, all ties sundered, all side issues 
brought to an end—hence the simple verb. But in 


1 The English mind may be satisfied to say forgot myself (so trained 
by habit is it at supplying deficiences); and perhaps this is the best 
we can do in English; but the Greek does more—it supplies by ἐπὶ the 
limitation which the English phrase leaves the reader to supply with- 
out saying it. 


Ἐπὶ and πρὸς in Composition. 67 


Lucian’s Dial., “ Aphrodite and Eros,” Helios is com- 
plained of as ἐπιλελησμένον τῆς ἱππασίας, forgetting 
his duty as charioteer ; it was a forgetting of some- 
thing he was bound to remember—hence ἐπὶ point- 
ing to the particular thing in which he forgot him- 
self. 

113. Ἐπὶ may suggest what is gracious and assur- 
ing. Il. 1:528, The son of Kronos spake, and nodded 
his dark brow, ἐπένευσε; he nodded in confirmation 
of his word that had just been given. Observe, that 
this was the famous nod where all Olympus was 
shaken—token of irreversible decree, whose proper 
word is κατανεύειν. Why then not catavevew here? 
Because that went without saying; it had been said 
and settled that the nod, when given, should be of 
that sort. If then we may throw off κατὰ, why not 
throw off ἐπὶ, using the simple ἔνευσε Because that 
would leave the word afloat, and all it signified. ᾿Επὶ 
knits the act into the web of the story, showing its 
relation with what goes before. An ancient critic 
has said that Homer was sometimes drowsy, and 
nodded. However that may be, he certainly was not 
drowsy here; he said just what he meant. 

The gay woman who came to Hercules in his 
doubts (Mem. 2:1, 22), as she approached him, κατα- 
σκοπεῖσθαι θαμὰ ἑαυτήν, often surveyed herself —Kata 
denoting the perfect repose she felt when looking at 
herself ; ἐπισκοπεῖν δὲ Kal εἴ τις ἄλλος αὐτὴν θεᾶται, 
and she often looked also to see if any other was ob- 


68 The Greek Prepositions. 


serving her; ἐπὶ looks forward to the following 
phrase, as expressing the thing she was looking for. 

114. Zo ask, beg, αἰτεῖν ; to demand, that is, to 
ask on the basis of some ground or reason that justi- 
fies the asking, ἐπαιτεῖν. Oecd. Tyr. 14:16, ὧν ἐπαι- 
teis, ἐπὶ refers to the ground of the demand—the 
king’s extreme need. Il. 23: 593, εἴ κεν ἄλλο μεῖζον 
ἐπαιτήσειας. If you should even ask another, greater 
thing—émi, to satisfy your just claims. Προσαιτξιν, 
to ask in addition (Anab. 1:3, 21). The soldiers 
asked for an increase of pay.’ 

115. “Esraxovew, to hear, not about something, 
which would be ἀκούειν περί τινος, nor from some 
one, which would be ἀκούειν ἀπὸ, ἐκ, παρά τινος: 
but to hear, on the ground of some fact with which 
the hearing has a natural connection. Hdt. 2: 70, 
The crocodile hearing the noise (of the squealing pig) 
makes for the noise, but coming across the bait he 
swallows it down, and they haul him in; hearing 


1 In Liddel and Scott’s Lexicon there is attributed to each of these 
compounds (ἐπαιτήσειας misprinted ἀπαιτήσειας) a meaning that be- 
longs to the other; as if they had crossed tracks, and each was doing 
duty in the other’s field. The passages referred to in illustration dis- 
prove the definition offered. Il. 23: 593, Xen. Vict. 4: 39, In no case 
does πρὸς denote “for a purpose”; in no case does ἐπὶ denote simply 
“more, besides.” If ever so rendered, it is a cheap device of transla- 
tion, as a resource in meeting an acknowledged difficulty, but is not an 
accurate picture of the thought. In 1]. 23: 593, ἐπὶ means for your 
satisfaction ; but this phrase is too heavy to be admitted in transla- 
tion; we must think it without saying it. 


ἜἘπὶ and πρὸς in Contposition. 69 


emaxovoas—why ἐπὶ Because the hearing was in a 
natural relation with another fact stated just before ; 
namely, that they belabored the pig, and made him 
squeal. Xen. Hist. Greece. 3:4, 1, προσακούσας δὲ Kal 
τοῦτο, and hearing this also besides—in addition to 
other things mentioned before. 

116. And, even as he spake, forth flew, ἐπέπτατο, 
on the right a bird of mighty wing, and the host of 
the Achaians shouted thereat, ἐπίαχον (Il. 18 : 821- 
822). Why not ἔπτατοξ Because the flying forth 
of the eagle was thought of as in response to—based 
upon—what had gone before. Why not ἴαχον ἢ Be- 
cause the shout was called forth by the omen, as if 
based upon it. 

117. ᾿Επιδεῖν, to bind upon—not, however, to a 

fixed object, which would require κατὰ ; but, for ex- 
ample, to bind crests on the helmets, ἐπὶ τὰ κράνεα 
λόφους ἐπιδέιν (Hdt. 1: 171). 
_ IIposdéw, to bind loosely, leaving distance between 
the objects connected, as the bait to the fishing-pole 
by the intervening line; the flail to its staff, by the 
slack, flexible thong (Hdt.). 

118. The priest made his prayer to the king; then 
all the Achaians shouted approval, ἐπευφήμησαν (I). 
1: 22)—the preposition points to what it was that 
ealled forth the shout—a shout, and at the same time 
a seconding of the prayer; it knits the phrases, other- 
wise disjointed, into an organic unity of thought. 

119. 70 say, λέγειν ; ἐπιλέγειν, to say on the basis 


70 The Greek Prepositions. 


of some fact that invites the saying. Cyrus would 
send a gift to a friend, instructing the bearer to say 
in explanation, ἐπιλέγειν (Anab. 1:9). Also (Cyri. 
Instit. 1: 3), ἐπιλέγων τὰ ἐκάστῳ, saying to each one— 
ἐπὶ, in explanation. 

120. Socrates says to Glaucon (Mem. 3:6, 5): 
“You have doubtless examined, ἔσκεψαι, the public 
resources, in order that,” ete. Indeed, said Glaucon, 
Thave not examined them in that light, οὐκ ἐπέσκεμ- 
μαι-- ἐπὶ refers to the particular limitation Socrates 
had set to the examination by the phrase “in order 
that,” ete. 

121. “Os dato: Πάτροκλος δὲ φίλῳ ἐπεπείθεθ᾽ 
ἑταίρῳ. Thus he spoke; and Patroclus obeyed his 
dear friend’s word; more fully, obeyed his dear 
friend in tt—in the matter—éni referring to what 
had been said. New Testament, What man is there 
of you, whom, if his son ask bread, will he give him 
a stone, λίθον ἐπιδώσει αὐτῳ ; will give him, ἐπὶ, for 
his asking. 

122. Il. 1:569, Zeus uttered his threat, and Hera 
feared, bending her heart to his will, ἐπυγνάμψασα 
φίλον κῆρ. Compare ἀναγνάμπτειν (Sec. 28). 

Anab. 7:4, 9, And Seuthes asked, ἤρετο : ‘ would 
you even be willing to die for this one?” Then, 
after an answer had been given, we read ἐπήρετο ὁ 
Σεύθης, Seuthes asked thereupon. This would usually 
be translated, Seuthes asked further, as if ἐπὶ here 
denoted simply the addition of a second question ; 


Ἐπὶ and πρὸς in Contposition. 71 


this is not the thought—the thought is that the sec- 
ond question is made on the basis of the answer to 
the first. Ἐπὶ never suggests the addition of things 
which are co-ordinate—that is the office of πρὸς. It 
may be excusable to translate ἐπήρετο by asked further, 
but that is not strict; it is a concession for the sake 
of a smoother phrase. 

123. Menelaus in fight with Paris (Il. 3: 369), 
springing upon him (ἐπαΐξας), caught him by his 
horse-hair crest, and turning around (ἐπιστρέψας), be- 
gan to drag him in among the well-greaved Achaians. 
In the first participle ἐπὶ looks to the object of the 
action (Eng. upon) ; in the second it means more dis- 
tantly the same; we translate it turning round ; 
literally it means turning upon, i. e., turning toward, 
so as to face those to whom he was about to drag his 
victim. Farther on in the same story, when the hel- 
met strap had broken and the helmet was free in his 
hand, Menelaus, ἐπιδινήσας, swinging i around for 
a throw, slung it away among the Achaians. Let us 
drop the ἐπὶ, and find the simple δινεῖν in another 
place. Od. 9:384, when Odysseus and his party had 
to do with the Cyclops Polyphemus, he says (Odys. 
9 : 382): My companions, taking up the burning stake 
thrust it into his eye, and I, standing above, turned 
it about, édiveov: here the verb denotes the main ac- 
tion, and is simple. But look forward in the same 
story (v. 538), when the Cyclops took up a huge stone, " 
swinging it around, ἐπιδινήσας ; ἐπὶ for the throw. 


72 The Greek Prepositions. 


124. We read in Herodotus that a smith, in dig- 
ging a well many feet below the ground, came upon 
a coffin, ἐπέτυχε cope. Had he found water, that 
would have called for the verb κατέτυχεν, for else- 
where Herodotus tells us of a physician, who, after 
trying many medicines on his patient, at last het on 
the right thing, and effected a cure, κατέτυχεν. TL 
came upon by chance, ἐπέτυχον ; something happened 
to Mme, προσέτυχεν. 

125. Δεικνύναι, to show, point out an object; ἐπι- 
δεικνύναι, to exhibit, i. e., having the object already in 
view, to proceed and point out its qualities—as to 
explain a machine, an invention. Such a showing is 
an ἐπίδειξις. It shows what there is zz or belonging 
to a thing. 

126. ᾿Εφιέναι, to send upon, or against, or on the 
basis of some fact that justifies the sending. The 
simple verb ἱέναι takes two objects—an accusative 
and a dative. 1]. 18:182, τίς γάρ σε θεῶν ἐμὸν ἄγγε- 
λον ἧκεν, Who of the gods sent you as messenger to 
me? Therefore ἐπὶ, compounded with ἱέναι, has 
something else to do than govern the dative case of 
a person. Let us see (Il. 24: 117), ἐγὼ ἸΙΤριάμῳ ἐφήσω, 
7 will sent Iris to Prian, ἐπὶ, on this matter—the 
matter being the condition of the slain Hector’s body, 
and the restoration of it to his friends. The matter 
to which ἐπὶ refers is found in what precedes it; and 
connects the actor in his precedent state with the _ 
action which follows. 


"Earl and πρὸς in Composition. 73 


-Προσιέναι, to allow to come, to admit (Anab. 4: 
55), Lhey did not admit to the fire, ov προσίεσαν πρὸς 
τὸ πῦρ, those who came late. They came as to a 
privilege, not to do something, but to receive—hence 
πρὸς TO πῦρ, not ἐπὶ τὸ πῦρ. To let or send dogs 
upon the game, ἐφιέναι, for their instinct determines 
their action, as gravity determines the motion of a 
stone; to send one forth to battle, ἀνιέναι, for free 
will acts, and chance has scope, as in the throwing up 


. of a stone. 


) Cyri. Inst. 1:3, “ Having the honor to introduce, 
᾿ προςάγειν, petitioners to the king,” to receive some- 
thing from the king, not to do anything to him. 
: Ἔσάγειν, to bring upon, implying force; Vesp. 
370, ἔπαγε γνάθον, lay your jaws to it, that is, to the 
food, to crush it. But to bring one jaw ¢o the other 
in shutting the mouth, προσάγειν, because the action 
is reciprocal; each jaw as it acts on the other is at 
the same time acted on by it. Hdt. 2:68, The croco- 
dile moves the upper jaw to the lower, τὴν ἄνω γνάθον 
προσάγει TH κάτω. 

Anab. 3:4, Xenophon riding up to Chirisophus, 
προσελάσας ; the two were equals, and met for dis- 
cussion; but see Sec. 71, where ὑπελάσας suggests 
subordination. 

127. ᾿Επιτάσσειν, προστάσσειν. 

The definitions of these words in the Lexicon seem 
very near alike—indeed, they are both used to ex- 
press the idea of injunction, command. The proper 


14 The Greek Prepositions. 


discrimination will be best made in the light of the 
original suggestions of the two prepositions respect- 
ively. “Et presents its object as passive, making 
no response to the action (Sec. 45); if the action, 
therefore, be that of giving a command, ἐπιτάσσειν 
will imply that the person receiving the command 
does not pause to consider whether he shall obey or 
not—he obeys, of course; προστάσσειν, on the con- 
trary, implies that the person receiving the command 
responds by a free choice whether to obey or dis- 
obey. If a command is disobeyed, the word to ex- 
press the giving of it is naturally προστάσσειν, in 
order to harmonize by anticipation the word with the 
completed thought. See this distinction illustrated 
in Hdt. 1: 114, 115, where both compounds are used 
in describing how the boys played at choosing a king; 
where in the little mimic kingdom to give a com- 
mand in the faith that it will be readily accepted 
and obeyed is προστάσσειν; but if one is recusant 
the command takes towards him a sharper tone—it is 
ἐπιτάσσειν. See also Xen. Oce. 7:7, When God has 
enjoined, ἐπέταξεν, the harder, out-door life on men, 
and has allotted, προσέταξεν, the easier, in-door life 
to women; as if the former—the hard service—would 
be avoided, if it might be; while the latter, from its 
milder conditions, invites and obtains the response of 
a willing acceptance. 


Tapa. Ό 


CHAPTER X. 
Tapa. 


128. Παρά, by, beside, is used with the Gen., the 
Dat., or the Ace. With the Genitive, meaning from 
beside, drawing his sword, παρὰ μηροῦ, from his side, 
literally, from beside his thigh; with the Dat., denot- 
ing situation beside—they were playing, παρὰ ρηγμῖνι 
θαλάσσης, beside the sea-shore; with the Ace., de- 
noting to the side of; they seated themselves beside 
Menelaus, παρὰ Μενέλαον. 

129. We shall best grasp the meaning of this prep- 
osition if we think of its use in the sphere of living 
beings, whose natural movement is forward, and who 
have a right side, and a left. Two persons walking 
beside each other make the situation that invites the 
use of this preposition; Gorgias 472, OC, Let us com- 
pare our views together, παῤ ἀχλλῆλους, and see whether. 
The picture is that of two persons moving forward 
side by side, to reach, if possible, a common conclusion. 

He went, παρὰ βασιλέα, to the king, so as to be by 
him, subject to his orders: he came from the king, 
mapa βασιλέως, bearing his orders, responsible to him; 


__ he lives, παρὰ Σωφρονίσκῳ, with Sophroniscus. Τί 


does not admit the idea of hostility like ἐπὶ ; nor that 
of mutual converse between equals, like πρός. The 
parties are unequal, and the object of the preposition 
is naturally the superior of the two, as it should be, 


76 The Greek Prepositions. 


for it is fitting that the superior should abide in his 
place, and the inferior should go and come; even 
Sophroniscus, the householder, has in that fact a mark 
of superiority over him who transiently is found at his 
house. The suggestion of superiority does not come 
from the preposition, but resides in the nature of the 
things or persons introduced. Sometimes the object 
of παρὰ is the inferior of the two things introduced. 
Men compared with other creatures, παρὰ adda ζῶα, 
are as gods compared with men. The primitive way 
of comparing things with each other is by placing 
them side by side. This mode of comparison is sug- 
gested in Hdt. 3:160. No one surpassed Zopyrus 
in the estimation of Darius, παρὰ Δαρείῳ κρυτῇ, 1. 8. 
standing beside Darius as judge. This does not mean, 
as the Lexicon implies, that the judge is acting offi- 
cially ; but only as every man is a judge of his fellow 
man when he forms and holds an opinion about him. 
This essential relation of the parties or things under- 
lies all the uses; and shows with what modifications 
the so-called English equivalents must be taken. 

130. The word against, admitted in the Lexicon 
as a translation of παρὰ, should be strictly guarded ; 
mapa does not mean against in the sense of hostility, 
but as aside from the normal rule of action—the op- 
posite of κατὰ: according to the truce, κατὰ τὰς 
σπόνδας ; παρὰ τὰς σπόνδας, contrary to the truce, 
where the actor, forsaking the proper line of conduct, 
is like a car off the track. 


Ilapa in Composition. 17 


CHAPTER XI. 
παρὰ IN COMPOSITION. 


131. THERE was beside the Euphrates a narrow 
passage (πάροδος) between the river and the ditch. 
This passage Cyrus and his army passed through, 
παρῆλθε (Anab. 1: 7, 16, 17). 

Hdt. 8:15, The Greeks at Thermopylae exhorted 
one another not to let the barbarians pass by them 
into Greece, παρεκαλεύοντο ὅκως μὴ Trapnoovas ἐς τὴν 
“Ἑλλάδα τοὺς βαρβάρους. 

182. Socrates says to his judges (Apol. 1), If, 
Athenians, you shall hear me, in my defence, using 
the very same manner of address I have been wont 
to use with the multitude, I pray you to indulge me, 
and let it pass, παρίεσθαι. Anab. 5:7, 10, παρίημι, 7 
resign—let the command go by me to another. Hat. 
2:96, These rafts are dragged along up the stream 
by those on shore, τἄυτα τὰ TOLa ἀνὰ τὸν πόταμον 
παρέλκεται ἐκ γῆς---παρὰ, along beside the shore. 

133. Σκευή denotes the equipments needed in car- 
rying on a business, whether in a shop, a kitchen, a 
ship, or a camp; σκευάζειν is to furnish or make such 
equipment; κατασκευάζειν is to furnish what is es- 
sential and permanent—to organize completely. An 
army κατασκευαστός is one, all the parts of which are 
armed, equipped, officered, and trained, ready for 
service. This forms the κατασκευή. But, if an army 


78 The Greek Prepositions. 


is to take the field, more is necessary; stores of pro- 
visions, wagons, and beasts of burden, guides, scouts, 
foragers, etc. These are to go along, παρά, as the 
army moves. This all forms the παρασκευή ; and an 
army thus furnished is παρασκευαστός. The κατα- 
σκευή is essential to the complete army, ship, house, 
or shop, and is permanent; the παρασκευή is change- 
able and temporary. 

Now, when all the work of the bridges had been 
completed, κατεσκεύαστο, the army equipped for as 
march, wapecxevacpévos, set forth. The work on the 
bridge was for permanent use; the equipment was 
only for its present march; hence xateck . . . παρεσκ. 

134. These words lend themselves to moral uses ; 
and there is a beautiful illustration of the distinction 
noted above in Mem. 1:3. Xenophon tells us that 
Socrates, when tempted to this vice, and that, was 
prepared, παρεσκευασμένος, to resist; the loving dis- 
ciple then wishes to say more; he groups all the vices 
together, and says that his master was κατεσκευασμέ- 
vos against them all. The παρασκευή had become a 
κατασκευή; the good resolutions which a less stable 
soul might summon, as to an exigency, to meet each 
temptation as it came, had become habit and a second 
nature—so serenely settled that temptations could not 
impress it; the temporary equipment had become a 
part of the man himself. 

135. Xen. Oecon. 7:7, God has prepared (sape- 
oxevacev) the nature of woman for works within 


Παρὰ tx Composition. 79 


doors; for he has constituted her (κατεσκεύασεν) less 
able to endure cold and heat. That woman should 
work within doors is not a necessity, but a conven- 
ience; that she is less strong to bear hard labor, and 
cold, and heat, belongs to her nature, and cannot be 
changed. 

A wall extends along either bank of the river, 
παρὰ χεῖλος ἑκάτερον τοῦ ποταμοῦ αἱμασιὴ παρατείνει 
(Η αὐ. 1:180). Here the preposition is repeated. 
Along near the western shore of this sea the Caucasus 
TUNS ; τὰ πρὸς τὴν ἑσπέρην φέροντα τῆς θαλάσσης 
ταύτης ὁ Καύκασος παρατείνει (140. 1 : 205). In this 
example παρὰ governs the Acc. τὰ φέροντα, denoting 
the country along which the mountain chain runs. 

136. Sometimes the writer omits this obiect, leav- 
ing it to be supplied by the thought. Anab. 1: 7, 15, 
The canal had been extended (παρετέτατο, stretched 
along) through the plain for twelve parasangs. Here 
the preposition is retained, although the writer has 
no occasion for naming the objects alongside of which, 
or by which, the canal ran. 

137. Mem. 1:17, 1, No wonder that they mzs- 
judged, tapayvavat—judged aside from the truth, 
like men who lost their way. 

138. The verb αἰνεῖν means to praise; ἐπαινεῖν, 
to praise for something done. Now, the same feeling 
that prompts to the praise of an action after it is done 
would lead to the encouragement of it while it is do- 
ing; παραινεῖν, therefore, means to encourage, to ap- 


ς!. παρα ελένσξικι Cncaurage ae wek mot Keg aes 
# erarcsAsuw mata aay i ln ani δὶ δ ‘ip hes tome 5m Se 1.5. 


80 The Greek Prepositions. 


prove a proposed course of action (Xen. Anab. 5:7) 
- παρὰ places the one who approves by the side of 
the actor. Thus the discrimination in the meaning 
of these two verbs has its root in the prepositions 
respectively, as designations of space. 


CHAPTER XII. 
ἀπὸ AND ἐκ. 


139. ᾿Απὸ, off from; ἐκ, out from. 

These words alike denote separation; they are 
therefore followed by one case invariably—the Geni- 
tive. Where ἀπὸ is used, the things separated are in 
their nature independent of each other; the contiguity 
or nearness before the separation is merely temporary, 
or accidental, and, consequently, the thing separated 
loses nothing by the separation; it remains whole, 
and as good as before. ᾿Απὸ takes good care that its 
subjects receive no detriment—they are still kept in 
mind. The book, the apple, the flower, taken off 
from (ἀπὸ) the table, is the same as before; not so 
with ἐκ; water poured from a bowl, ἐκ φιάλης, can- 
not be gathered up; coins dropped from a bowl, ἀπὸ 
φιάλης, may be gathered up again. 

140. These examples suggest that the previous 
connection implied by é« is more intimate than that 


"Amo and Ἔκ. 81 


implied by ἀπὸ---ἃΒ we might well suppose from the 
hints of space, since that which is 7m is more in- 
timately connected than that which is merely near 
or by. The relation suggested by é« with living 
things is often dynamic, or vital. To lead by the 
hand, ἐκ xepos—the guiding power proceding con- 
tinually from the hand. Il. 16: 365, As when a cloud 
comes from out the sacred air, ἀιθέρος ἐκ Sins—it 
comes into being where nothing was before. 

141. My manner of life from my youth, é« veorn- 
tos, which from the first, ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς, know all the 
Jews (Acts 26:4). Why ἐκ in the first phrase, and 
ἀπὸ in the second? *Ex, because Paul’s character— 
which he was now defending—was a continuous growth 
out of his youth, as a tree from its root; while ἀπὸ 
serves simply to fix a date—and this is done by the 
recollection of concurrent outward events. 

142. Thue. 2:15, This had been the way of living 
among the Athenians from very carly times, ἀπὸ τοῦ 
πάνυ ἀρχαίου. The reign of Theseus introduced a 
great change. rom this ἐξ éxetvov—growing out of 
this—they have ever since observed a yearly festival 
in commemoration of their completed union. Note 
here, as in the case above, the difference in the prep- 
ositions ; ἀπὸ belongs to the mere skeleton of history 
-ἐξ makes us feel its pulse. 

143. Mem. 2:7, 2, We neither obtain anything 
out of the earth, ἐκ τῆς γῆς, for our enemies control 
that ; Ber Jrom our houses, awd τῶν οἰκιῶν, for there 


82 The Greek Prepositions. 


is a lack of people to rent them; the earth brings 
forth of herself, therefore ex, the houses do πού. 

Leading from the arm, ἐκ τοῦ βραχίονος ἐπέλ- 
xovoa; the connection was not broken. 

144, Descent from fathers and near progenitors is 
expressed by éx, as if the descendants so near had 
their life in their progenitors; but if the time be 
long, the tie grows weaker to the imagination, in 
tracing it upward, till at last it seems to break, and 
we tind ἀπὸ; as if the far distant descendants had 
become quite sundered, and no longer were originated 
in their ancestors; τοὺς μὲν ἀπὸ θεῶν, τοὺς δ᾽ ἐξ αὐτῶν 
τῶν θεῶν γεγονότες, some by far descent, ἀπὸ, others 
immediately from, ἐξ. 


CHAPTER XIII. 


ἀπὸ AND ἐκ IN COMPOSITION. 


145. Trees fall, and so perish, ἐκπίπτουσιν; so 
kings falling from their power—from all that made 


1 Tn Liddell and Scott’s Lexicon, 7th ed., there is a mistake in Art. 
ἜΚ, which it may not be improper to note here. Page 428, line 16: 
“With a part, to mark the point of time, συνετάττετο ἐκ τῶν ἔτι 
προσιόντων, the army arranged itself at, i. e., from the beginning of 
their approach; Xen. An. 1:8, 14.” Ἔκ does not refer to time, but 
to the material of which the line was formed. The meaning is, the 
army formed its line out of those still marching up—i. e., the front 
halted, the rest, as they marched up, formed in line with them. 


"Amo and “Ex in Composition. 83 


them kings; citizens banished, and so losing their 
rights; but an apple, ripe, and so falling, ἀποπίπτει, 
for its life in the tree is completed—the tree can do 
no more for it; nature testifies to this in the weaken- 
ing of the tree’s hold on the apple, till gravitation is 
the stronger, and the apple falls. But if a blossom 
falls from its stalk and perishes, or if green fruit is 
shaken off, thus losing the life it was at the time hav- 
ing in the tree, the verb is ἐκπίπτειν ; the flower 
thereof falleth, ἐξέπεσε (Epis. Ja. 1:11). 

146. ᾿Αποδιδόναι, to restore what was unjustly held, 
to pay—the act settles an existing claim, and leaves 
the parties free ; ἐκδιδόναι, to give out without a pre- 
vious consideration, as a housewife might put out 
cloth from her loom to be dressed ; it is still hers, and 
must be returned. In the following sentence both 
these compounds occur. Whoever agrees with me 
will certainly put out (ἐκδώσει) his colt to be trained 
—first having come to an agreement how much he 
will have to pay (ἀποδοῦναι) when the work is done 
(Xen. Equest., ch. 2). 

147. To reach, ἱκνεῖσθαι ; ἐξικνεῖσθαι, to reach im- 
mediately, as with the hand, with a pole, a spear, an 
arrow from a bow; by the power of sight, by the 
power of thought; also to reach by natural growth, 
culture, or training. The emphasis throughout is on 
the origin, as if the force at the start were sufficient 
to achieve the end without stops for rest or reinforce- 
ment. The examples are frequent enough, from 


84 The Greek Prepositions. 


Homer down; but they all lie in the line of thought 
here drawn. A single one is introduced here; as it 
bespeaks kindness to animals, is homely, and is against 
a fashion. Xenophon tells us (De Equest., ch. 5), 
“The colt’s tail should be let grow, that it may reach 
as far as possible, ὅπως ἐπὶ πλεῖστον ἐξικνούμενος, to 


brush off what annoys him.” The word also means ~ 


to reach with speed, as in flight, or in a race—the 
urgency allowing no time for rest, or thought for the 
places passed by. But on a journey or a march time 
and distance intervene, measured by the halting-places 
—the emphasis on the starting-point fades to the im- 
agination; the interest passes over to the end of the 
action—éx is dropped, and ἀπὸ lends itself to com- 
plete the verbal picture. Of this hard-worked verb, 
ἀφικνεῖσθαι, the student of the Anabasis will not fail 
to find examples more than enough. 

Cyri. Inst. 7:1, Z will lead the war song, παιᾶνα 
ἐξάρξω, and do you follow, ὑμεῖς δε ἐφέπεσθε---ἐπὶ, 
thereupon; the leading was at the leader’s discretion 
—under no law but his own mind—therefore ἐξ. 

148. ἸΤειρᾶσθαι, to try; ἀποπειρᾶσθαι, to try with 
a desire that the person or thing tried may stand the 
trial—so as to be placed in a class by itself. Croesus 
(Hdt. 1:46) made trial of the oracles, ἀπεπειρᾶτο 
τῶν μαντηΐων, hoping to find one worthy of trust. 
Xerxes (Hdt. 8 : 67) asked each one, trying him (ἀπο- 
πειρώμενος), to find if he was in favor of engaging in 
a sea fight; he did this hoping that each one would 


"Amo and Ἔκ in Composition. 85 


favor it. Pausanias made trial of the Greeks, ἀπε- 
πειρᾶτο, to see if any would volunteer (Hdt. 9 : 21). 
His hope was to find volunteers. 

149. ᾿Ἐκπειρᾶσθαι, to tempt, to try with the desire 
that the thing or person tried may fail (Hadt. 2 : 135). 
Are you tempting me to speak, ἐκπειρᾷ λέγειν (Oecd. 
Tyr. 360)—to speak to my own harm—are you trying 
to push me beyond my self-control. The aim and 
natural result with ἀποπειρᾶσθαι is to approve what 
is tried, and place it in a class by itself; the aim and 
result with ἐκπειρᾶσθαι is to defeat or destroy what 
is tried. With ἀποπειρᾶσθαι the rule and measure of 
the trial are prescribed ; with ἐκπειρᾶσθαν nothing is 
settled beforehand; it may continue till every resource 
that was in the trier has been put forth in the trial. 
If you are challenged to break a stick, and answer the 
challenge by trying your strength upon it, the verb is 
ἐκπειρᾶν;; if you try from a bundle of sticks to find 
those that will bear a cross strain of a certain number 
of pounds, the verb is ἀποπειρῶν. 

A lawyer, before bringing his case before the 
court, examines his witnesses, to find what they can 
say, ἀποπειρῶται ; his opponent, in the cross-examina- 
tion, tries to break them down, ἐκπειρᾶται. 

᾿Ἐκτρέπεσθαι, to turn out, as one would do to 
avoid something in his path (Hdt. 1: 104), ἀποτρέ- 
πεσθαι, to turn aside as one would do to observe 
something not in his path. 

150. Δεικνύναι, to show, point out, as one would 


86 The Greck Prepositions. 


show a thing, or point out a person, to another; but 
if what is pointed out is known to no one else, the 
verb is naturally é«é-; as to show feelings concealed 
before, to reveal hidden treasures. Oed. Col. 1021, If 
you have his children here, show them to me, éxé-. But 
if the children were in sight along with others, but not 
distinguished from the rest, and the command were: 
point out his children to me, the verb would be ἀποῦ-. 

So, if the thing or person pointed out stands apart 
as something notable, and important, the verb is 
ἀποδεικνύναι. They show an ancient temple, dzroé- 
(Hdt. 1:171). Pointing out the sepulchres, ἀποὺ- 
εὐκνύντες, as proofs of their rights in the land (Thue. 
1:26). This compound also means to appoint, thus 
setting a man forth to public view under this newly- 
acquired name. 

151. Θνήσκειν, to die; ἀποθνήσκειν, to die away 
from one’s fellows, and his work ; ἐκθήσκειν, to expire, 
to die by breathing out. These characteristics may 
be found where other prepositions than ἀπὸ or ἐκ are 
used with words expressive of death; but some other 
point, different from any of these, may be prominent 
in the speaker’s mind, and require to be accented in 
the language; so we have καταθνήσκειν, ἐπιθνήσκειν, 
and others, compounds; in cases where these words 
are used, the person dying breathes out his last; and 
zs separated from his fellows ; but some other point 
is emphatic in the thought, and controls the form of 
the word. 


"Amd and Ἔκ in Composition. 87 


152. ᾿Αποκτείνειν.-- οἵ which ἀποθνήσκειν is often 
used as the passive—may mean the separation of foes, 
the bereavement of survivors in the loss of friends, 
or the solution of the conflict between the guilty and 
the law which condemns them. In the words of 
Andromache (Il. 6: 414), “I have no father, no dear 
mother,” ἤτοι yap πατέρ᾽ ἀμὸν ἀπέκτανε δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς, 
jor my father the mighty Achilles slew ; the picture 
is that of her bereavement; but, two lines after, the 
same external act is mentioned again; but it is not 
now ἀπέκτανεν, but catréxravey—aud with good reason, 
for the point of view has changed ; she is now think- 
ing—not of her bereavement, but of the scene at the 
moment of the killing. Achilles had conquered her 
father, and might have spared him, if he would; but, 
with the choice before him, he relentlessly killed him. 
No one can read these lines intelligently, and not see 
that to exchange the prepositions here would spoil 
the picture. 

153. ᾽Αποτελξέιν, ἐκτελέιν.--- ΤΠ noun τέλος means 
the perfection, completion of a thing—the highest 
permanent result it can attain; the action through 
which a thing is brought to this perfection is ex- 
pressed by the verb τέλξιν. A man completes his 
purpose when he carries it out in action—and every 
purpose thus carried out invites the use of the verb 
terew ; but not till he has completed a work that 
stands off, aloof from other things, can he apply to 
him the verb ἀποτέλξιν. This word may be applied 


88 The Greek Prepositions. 


to things bad as well as good; to the ruin of a city, 
or its deliverance, where the end was proposed before- 
hand; to small acts as well as great, if ending in some- 
thing that may stand by itself—as the payment of 
vows, the building of a house, the plowing of a field. 
Hdt. 5:92, 7, Whatever Cypselus had left incomplete, 
Periander completed, ἀπετέλεε. dt. 2: 65, When 
they have made vows, they fulfill them, ἀποτελέουσι. 
The distinction of a thing suggested by ἀπὸ---ἃ8 if 
it were set apart from other things—may spring from 
its very nature; its greatness may define it, as the 
building of a city wall, the liberation of a people. 
The discovery of America is, for the imagination, 
taken quite out from the series that make up the 
biography of Columbus, and set by itself, defined by 
its own greatness—an epoch in the world’s history ; 
and we predicate ἀποτέλξιν of the man who achieved 
it. Kind handling makes colts gentle, ἀποτελέιν ; 
puts them in a class (Xen. Equest.). Wise adminis- 
tration makes a city prosperous, ἀποτέλέιν (Plato). 


1In Liddell and Scott’s Lexicon the phrase τὴν πόλιν ἄποτελέξιν 
εὐδαίμονα is translated ‘to make the state quite happy.” This is mere 
groping. The preposition ard here simply recognizes that happy states 
are set off in thought in a class by themselves. A substantive, limited 
by an adjective, is, to thought, just as valid a designation of class as 
the substantive alone—only the class is a narrower one. To regard 
ἀπὸ as giving intensive force to εὐδαίμονα in this phrase, is to miss a 
plain and important point, and to confuse the student; it disregards 
the obvious meaning of the preposition, and attributes to it a meaning 
not found elsewhere. 


᾿Απὸ and “Ex in Composition. 89 


154. Now, what is é«redetv? It is to achieve a 
thing out of the spontaneous promptings of the actor’s 
own spirit or life; not by command, nor by promises 
or outward obligation. Il. 9:498, The Gods were 
granting (ἐξετέλειον) to me no son, ἐκ suggests that 
their will was sovereign., Od. 3: 275, Aegisthus, see- 
ing that he had accomplished, ἐκτελέσας, a great deed, 
that is, his great crime, from his own wicked mind. 
Why not say dzotehécas? Because the act was in 
fulfillment of no law, or obligation, or acknowledged 
end. It had its form and measure solely in the spirit 
of the doer. 

Il. 2:286, The Achaians are not fulfilling, οὐκ 
éxtergovow, the promise which they made. The 
words are a taunt against them for not making good 
their boastful promise. They were under no obliga- 
tion, except to themselves, to make it good. Had 
there been such obligation, their failure would have 
been expressed by οὐκ ἀποτελέουσιν. See Hdt. 2: 65, 
The people of the various cities pay their vows, εὐχὰς 
ἀποτελέουσιν. The vow, εὐχὴ, made a public claim 
on them, which they could not evade. The fulfill- 
ment put their act into a known class of actions; it 
discharged their obligation, and set them free (ἀπὸ) 
from their bond. 

155. In ἐκφεύγειν, é« emphasizes the initial point ; 
while ἀπὸ in ἀποφεύγειν points to the end, when the 
fugitive gets safe away. Anab. 1: 49, ἀποπεφευγότες, 
having fled for safety. Udt. 1:25, Croesus made a 


90 The Greek Prepositions. 


thank-offering for his recovery from sickness, ἐκφυγὼν 
τὴν νοῦσον ; ἐκ temporary, of course; there is no 
ἀποφυγὴ from disease. 

The guard has an interest for his prisoner, μὴ 
ἐκφύγῃ ; the prisoner has an interest for himself some- 
what wider, ὡς ἀποφύγῃ. 

156. To lead ἡγεῖσθαι.-- 6. may say of a military 
company which marches at the head of a procession, 
. ἡγεῖται. But the leader may do more than march in 
front; he may control and direct; may determine 
whether or not there shall be a procession ; or in what 
direction and how far it shall go. Just so far as he 
does this his action is expressed by ἐξηγεῖσθαι. The 
leading is arbitrary, it has no law or limit but in the 
mind of the leader; hence this word is naturally used 
to express military command (Il. 2: 806; Hdt. 1: 151). 
But suppose we change a little the picture of the pro- 
cession, and say, as if reading from a newspaper re- 
port: It was determined to close the celebration by 
services at the monument, one mile distant; and 
Company C led the procession. Here the simple 
verb ἡγεῖσθαι will not be used; it would express 
truth, but not the truth wanted here. A new feature 
has been added to the picture, and this demands 
recognition. Nor will ἐξηγεῖσθαι answer our turn; 
it expresses too much, and at the same time not 
enough. It would imply that Company C controlled 
the movement, which it never would do in such a 
ease; and, further, it does not recognize the fact that 


rte =. 


᾿Απὸ and "Ex in Composition. 91 


the movement has a limit and measure quite inde- 
pendent of the actor—namely, the monument. To 
recognize this objective point, the preposition ἀπὸ is 
needed, and the word is ἀφηγεῖσθαι. 

157. These words also mean to narrate, set forth. 
Hdt. 2:115, Alexander gave a true account of his 
voyage, τὸ πλόον ἀπηγήσατο ; but when he was asked 
about Helen he was confused, and did not speak the 
truth ; whereupon those who had sailed with him 
confuted his statements, telling out the whole story, 
ἐξηγεύμενοι πάντα λόγον ---ἐξ refers to the conceal- 
ment—what was hidden becomes revealed. Note the 
same discrimination in these two compounds in Hdt. 
2:121, 1, in the story of the cunningly-built treasure- 
house. The dying father calling up his two sons seé 
forth to them, τούτοισι ἀπηγήσατο, how he had always 
taken good care that they should live in plenty, then 
revealing to them, τούτοισι ἐξηγησάμενοι, all about the 
movable stone in the wall; his good care of them all 
men knew—therefore adny-; the contrivance of a 
movable stone was a secret known to him alone— 
therefore ἐξηγ-. See also Mem. 4: 7, 6, Anaxagoras 
took pride in the thought that he could explain, 
ἐξηγεῖσθαι, the mechanism of the heavens—as things 
known to himself alone. 

158. ᾿Αποφαίνειν, to show, declare something that 
already exists, as one’s settled opinion, γνώμην (Hat. 
1:40), one’s property, οὐσίαν, ἐκφαίνειν, to reveal 
what was hidden, as truth concealed before (Hdt. 1: 


92 The Greek Prepositions. 


117); also γνώμην, if it means a bidden purpose (Hat. 
5: 36). 

The judge declares the law to the jury, ἀποφαί- 
ve Tov νόμον; the jury make known their verdict, 
éxpaive-—kept secret till by the order of the court 
they reveal it. The judge is responsible to a higher 
court, the jury are responsible only to their own sense 
of right. See Cyri. Inst. 1:2, ov δὲ γεραίτεροι ἀκόυ- 
σαντες éxxpivovow ; and the elders, having heard the 
case, give their decision ; the elders formed the high- 
est court—there was no review, nor appeal. 

159. πὶ, on, and ἀπὸ, off, seem far enough apart 
when used alone; but in composition the compound 
words are drawn together sometimes so near as to in- 
vite comparison. ᾿Αποδιδόναι, ἐπιδιδόναι; ἀποτελεῖν, 
ἐπιτέλεϊῖν, and others. ᾿Αποδιδόναι, to pay, it dis- 
charges an indebtedness, and leaves the parties free, 
amo, of each other. 

160. On ἐπιδιδόναι the Lex. says: “To give be- 
sides.” This is wrong; it is aside from the natural 
suggestion of the preposition, and demonstrably wrong 
judged by the examples referred to. 1]. 23: 559, & 
με κελεύεις ὄικοθεν ἄλλο Evpjrw ἐπιδοῦναι... τελέσ- 
ao. Lf thou requirest me to give to Humelus some 
other thing out of my house, that will I do. Here, 
from the story, there is no place for the idea of be- 
sides; besides what? Not the mare, for that was 
reserved to be quarreled over afterward by Antilo- 
chus and Menelaus. It was a case of compromise. 


whe 


‘in 


+e 


* ea iy 7 yy 
SATIN POEL IF IIS PL GS 


cece 


- ΕΝ 
pen Se ae ee ,..ς 


ree) ed 


᾿Απὸ and ’Ex in Composition. 93 


He was to give to Eumelus not something besides the 
mare, but instead of the mare. He did give some- 
thing else; Eumelus accepted the substitute, and was 
satisfied. The mare was left, without a word more 
said, to be disposed of between Antilochus and Mene- 
laus. The admirable translation by Lang, Leaf, and 
Myers, has followed the Lexicon, and therein missed 
a point. What then does ἐπιδοῦναι mean, if ἐπὶ does 
not suggest the idea besides, in addition to? It means 
to give for your satisfaction, on the basis of your 
claims. Eumelus had claims. This is not said in 
the text, but it is in every reader’s mind; ἐπὶ refers 
to those claims, and thus keeps the pulse of thought 
alive. 

161. The same force of ἐπὶ is again seen in ἔπαι- 
τήσειας, Vv. 593, same book; if for your claims you 
should demand, εἰ ἐπαυτήσειας. ... This word, and its 
mistranslation in the Lexicon, has already been re- 
marked upon in a note in Sec. 96. It is respectfully 
submitted that ἐπὶ never means strictly beszdes, in 
addition to; that to translate it so is always a con- 
cession to English phraseology (see Sec. 91). 

162. ᾿Αποτελεῖν, to complete a thing, so that it is 
thought of by itself (see Sec. 186); thus, in the mat- 
ter of a religious vow, one indispensable step is to 
make the vow; at this stage it is incomplete—it hangs 
on him who made it. When the man fulfills his vow, 
so that he is free from it (ἀπὸ), his act is expressed 
by ἀποτελεῖν. ᾿Επιτελεῖν, to fulfill an order or com- 


94 The Greek Prepositions. 


mand; to complete not a whole thing, but a command 
from a superior. The result is not a completed thing, 
but the satisfaction of the person commanding. 

Hat. 1:115, All the other boys did according to 
my orders, Ta ἐπυιτασσόμενα ἐπετέλεον. Thue. 1:70, 
The Athenians are quick to put in ewecution, ἔπυτε- 
λέσαι ἔργῳ, whatever they purpose. 

163. ᾿Απαιτεῖν, to demand back what has been 
taken from one, to demand pay (Anab. 1: 2,11). The 
soldiers demanded their pay, ἀπήτουν τὸν μισθόν. The 
answer to this demand is expressed by ἀποδιδόναι. 
Ἔπαιτεῖν (Lex.), “to ask besides ”—wrong, as we have 
seen. It means Zo ask on (ἐπὶ) the ground or basis of 


something that justifies the asking; also (Lex. again), 


“to beg as a mendicant” (Soph. O. C. 1364). Here 
the ingenuous student, meditating on this word of 
three syllables, may be tempted to ask: Where does 
the “mendicant”? come in; and what does ἐπὶ hon- 
estly mean? “Emi refers to something not spoken, 
but sure to be in the hearer’s mind, if he is awake, 
and thus keeps the thought alive. In the line from 
Soph. ἐπὶ means (to thought) on the basis of his rags. 
To make us think of the asker’s beggarly guise is the 
exact office of ἐπὶ here, and the whole of it. It is 
just because the speaker had that beggar’s guise in 
his imagination that he put in éwi—hoping that with 
that help we should get it into our imaginations. 

164. It may be asked: Is it quite necessary to 
dwell so long and minutely on small words? Per- 


Len 


ve ee ae 
Se ee FURS > cae 


"Amo and “Ex in Composition. 95 


haps we might reply: It is not quite necessary to 
study Greek at all, but if we do study it, it is but 
fair that we take pains and patience enough to under- 
stand it. If we cannot translate well into English 
all that the Greek contains, let us admire what we 
cannot imitate; and rejoice that we have in our hands 
a recorded language in many respects so superior to 
our own; in many respects, not at all superior.’ 

165. Mem. 2:1, If you wish to be beloved by 
friends, ὑπὸ φίλων; if you wish to be honored by 
any city, ὑπό τινος πόλεως ; and if you aim to get 
rich from flocks, ἀπὸ βοσκημάτων. That under 
which any thing is acts on that thing by gravitation ; 
friends, in loving, act as naturally as stones fall; soa 
city, in bestowing honor; but flocks, in making their 
owner rich, do not act—he is made rich from them 
(ἀπὸ), not by them (ὑπό). 


1 As a single instance, the discriminations marked by shall and 
will, with their tenses, have disciplined and served the thought of 
English-speaking people, in regions where the Greek mind never 
entered. 


96 The Greck Prepositions. 


CHA PEER XGhyv: 
ἐις AND ἐν. 


166. Ἔϊς, és, into, ἐν, an. 

These two prepositions (originally one—evs) carry 
to a wide extent the same suggestion as 7 in the 
Latin, in its two meanings of motion eto, and posi- 
tion in. *Exs always governs the Accusative, ἐν al- 
ways the Dative. The opposite notion is expressed 
by ἐκ. These contrasted notions—e and out, ito 
and out of—are linked together, each to its opposite, 
by a necessity of our thought. We may as well try 
to think of North without a South, of action without 
reaction, as try to think one of these notions without 
the other. Each is significant only in the light of 
the other; each is valid to thought because the other 
is there ready to verify it if need be. In these dy- 
namics contrast is not less fruitful of suggestion than 
analogy, and is nearer at hand. One thought is ever 
busy along the line that divides two border lands ; 
and written language is the note-book of the survey. 
Every line we draw that includes something, does at 
the same exclude everything else. Every assertion 
made, in thought or words, is a denial of its opposite. 

167. The Preposition és, arto, may be used before 
the names of all things that are bounded in space. 
It suggests the crossing of this boundary from with- 
out, carrying, by necessity, the idea of motion before 


"Kus and Ἔν. 9% 


the crossing, and, generally, of room for motion after 
crossing. ‘The boundary may not be actual, but at 
the moment it must be real in our thought. We look 
into space; space has no boundaries; but we think 
a boundary, and so justify ourselves in using the 
phrase. 

All things have their boundaries; time is bounded, 
life is bounded—so are our powers, and opportunities, 
our hopes and fears; everything, in short, may be 
thought of under this limitation; and, wherever this 
is done, the name of the thing, with és before it, 
forms a rational phrase in the language—and the 
student will usually have the satisfaction of seeing it. 

168. But let us not go too far. Let us not make 
our analysis and deduction our taskmasters rather 
than our helpers; and, when we cannot see our way, 
let us accept the limitation of our ability, and make 
the toil of memory supply the lack of insight. An 
old coin, worn smooth by ages of use, may be made, 
by heating, to give back its original figures, invisible 
when it is cold. But we cannot always restore an old 
Greek phrase, and make it give back its exact impress 
when it was first struck in the mind’s mint. 

We know, indeed, or may know, if we will think, 
why καθ᾽ ἕν means one by one; and that ἀνὰ, with ἕν 
standing after it, means nothing at all. They are not 
in the dictionary because they serve no possible hu- 
man thought. In trying to think it, we find that the 
end is provided for, and declared at the start—which 


98 | The Greek Prepositions. 


shows that ava is impertinent and out of place. But 
through what different lines of thought the military 
phrases és τέσσαρας, and ἐπὶ τέσσαρας, come to mean 
the same thing, four deep, is not so clear; and the 
result will not perhaps reward the labor of inquiring. 

169. The notion most naturally accompanying that 
of és (into), is that of room to move in after the 
entrance is made (this is not declared, nor is it always 
true, but the thought is natural, partly as a continu- 
ance of the motion of entrance); but with ἐν, on the 
contrary, there is no suggestion of motion, and the 
naturally accompanying notion is that of confinement 
and fixedness. ‘These accompanying notions will have 
their part to play in helping to the meanings of the 
word. Ἔπί τινι évvar, and ἔν τινι éwat, each denotes 
dependence; but the latter a dependence more entire 
and absolute—as the connection in space denoted by 
ἐν is closer and more fixed than that suggested by 
ἐπὶ. Cyrus the younger was dependent on his elder 
brother, iv ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ πρεσβυτέρῳ ; this was a 
human relation, temporal and external; but for what 
is more intimate, the divine with the human (see New 
Testament, John 17:23), 7 in them, and thou in me, 
that they may be made perfect in one, ἐγὼ ἐν ἀυτδις, 
καὶ σὺ ἐν ἐμοὶ, ἵνα ὦσι τετελεσμένοι ἐις ἕν. 

170. The inroad into a country by an army is ex- 
pressed by the noun ἐισβολή ; ἐν with the same verbal 
root gives the noun ἐμβολεύς, ὦ plug or stopper. 
These examples show with what tenacity the primary 


ae aiid 


Ἔπς and Ἔν. 99 


suggestion of the prepositions in space clings to the 
compounds and their derivatives—the first of the 
above examples suggesting room for motion after 
entering. The second denotes a position fixed and 
immovable. 

With this discrimination in mind, we find a reason 
for differences in the Greek which we cannot well 
express in an English translation. We find, in de- 
scribing an army arrayed for battle, ἐν τῷ εὐωνύμῳ, 
on the left, and ἐπὶ τῦυ εὐωνύμου, on the left; and 
perhaps we cannot improve the translation. We must 
not on that account suppose the two forms are inter- 
changeable. Let us take a narrative where both 
phrases occur (Anab. 1: 8), ἐν δὲ τῷ εὐωνύμῳ Apuaios 
τε καὶ TO ἄλλο βαρβαρικόν, and on the left were 
Ariaeus and the other barbarian forces. Again, and 
there were horsemen on the left of the enemy, καὶ 
ἦσαν ἵππεῖς ἐπὶ Tov εὐωνύμου τῶν πολεμίων. Observe, 
these horsemen on the extreme left were a movable 
body—they might be sent here or there as the turns 
of the battle should require; but Ariaeus and his bar- 
barian force were an integral part of the line of battle 
—fixed there, for his removal would have changed 
the whole plan of the battle. On ἐπὶ see 55, on ἐν 
see 169. 

171. We have seen, in comparing és and ἐν, that 
és, suggestive directly of motion, is suggestive, sec- 
ondarily of room, of freedom to move without restraint 
or obstacle; ἐν, on the contrary, denoting position 


100 The Greek Prepositions. 


merely, makes us think of something as confined, held 
fast—possibly in contact or in conflict with that which 
confines it. 

172. In studying the following compounds of ἐὺς 
and ἐν, we shall find distinctions of meaning which 
they owe to these primary suggestions. 


Ἔμβάλλειν, eioBarrew.—Hadt. 1:17, He sent in ἡ 


an mvading army, ἐσέβαλε στρατιήν. After enter- 
ing they had room to march round and ravage— 
which they did. 

The other Greeks began to back water, ἀνεκρούοντο 
(note in passing the force of ava); but an Athenian 
captain starting forth attacked a ship, νηὶ ἐμβάλλει 
(Hdt. 8:84). Here was impact, arrest of motion, 
conflict. 

118. The object of εἰσβάλλειν is something that 
can act after it is in, and εἰς helps fit the word to the 
situation. To throw poison into the wells, és τὰ 
φρέατα, is εἰσβάλλειν, for the poison diffuses itself 
and acts after it is in (Thuc. 2:48); but to throw 
grain into the manger, eis τὴν φάτνην, is ἐμβάλλειν--- 
the grain does not act after it isin. The objects of 
ἐμβάλλειν are lifeless things, or creatures in a passive 
relation ; ἐμβάλλειν τινὰ πόντῳ, to throw one énto the 
sea, to perish. Ἐμβολὴ, as a nautical term, is the 
driving the beak of a ship against the side of the 
enemy’s ship, where she can make no resistance; but 
an attack, prow to prow, is προσβολή, for the ship 
attacked can respond to the attack. 


"Kus and Ἔν. 101 


174. "EpPiBavew, εἰσβιβάζειν, to put on board; 
but ἐμβ-, where the object of the verb is inert, or 
passive—placed on board simply to be carried; εἰσβ-, 
where the object of the verb is sent on board to act— 
as seamen, to man the ship; soldiers, to fight ; officers, 
to command those on board; ἐν suggesting confine- 
ment, and εἰς a sphere for action. Anab. 5:3, 1, 
They put on board, ἐνεβίβασαν, the sick, and those 
over forty years of age, and children and women, and 
the baggage; and sending on board, εἰσβιβάσαντες, 
Philesius and Sophaenetus directed them to take charge 
of these, τούτων ἐκέλευον ἐπιμέλξισθαι. 

175. Some compounds with ἐν and ex are appar- 
ently so nearly alike in meaning—while yet they are 
distinctly different—that a comparison of them is 
called for at this place. “EvdqAos and ἔκδηλος. The 
latter, ἔκδηλος, means clearly perceived, but not known 
by name—distinct in form, color, or action, from what 
is around it; ἔνδηλος means clearly known through 
perception; it is more than clearly perceived, it 15. 
known by name. A dark speck is clearly seen in the 
sky; it is not known at once what it is; it is ἔκδηλος. 
After a little study the observer becomes sure what 
it is, and can give it a name; then it is ἔνδηλος. It 
has, to the observer’s mind, found its home 7m a class, 
ἐν, and has taken its name; before this it was only 
something coming owt of, ἐκ, the blank air to sight, 
without a name. 

176. Tl. 5:2, To Diomedes Athene gave might 


102 The Greek Prepositions. 


and courage, that he might be conspicuous, ἔκδηλος, 
among all the Argives. It was designed that he 
should draw all eyes from others to himself, by his 
manifest superiority to them in action. This is a 
situation that calls for ἔκδηλος. Now, what situation 
would call for ἔνδηλος ἡ + Diomedes himself may serve 
our turn, with a little preparation ; let him come forth 
on the plain amid the other Argives, and the Trojans 
far off see him coming; he draws all eyes to himself, 
such might and courage does he show—they do not 
know who he is—he is ἔκδηλος ; but after a little, 
from his horses, his armor, or something seen more 
clearly as he comes near, they see who he is—then he 
is ἔνδηλος. 

I look out of my window and see a poppy so 
brilliant and so peculiar that it draws my eye away 
from every other poppy; it is ἔκδηλος, and to me it 
is only that, for I do not know its specific name; 
when I shall learn its name through its specific marks, 
it will be ἔνδηλος. 

Soph. Antis. 405, dp’ ἔνδηλα καὶ σαφῆ λέγω; Do 
I speak it clear and plain ; ἔνδηλα, so that you not 
only hear my voice distinct among other sounds— 
which would be ἔκδηλα---Ὀπῦ you know what I mean. 

177. Thue. 4: 132, To give some clear token of 
steadfastness on the Athenian side, évdnrov τι ποιξιν 
τοῖς ᾿Αθηναίοις βεβαιότητος πέρι. Observe, the first 
word makes a call at the start for something definite 
in the conclusion; the last words answer this call; 


Ἔπς and Ἔν. 108 


ἔκδηλος would scatter the thought, and leave the last 
words without any business in the phrase. 

178. A light appears in the evening in the eastern 
horizon; it may be a rising star, it may be an artifi- 
cial light; it is ἐκφανής, and no more, as long as that 
doubt remains. After a little, something which the 
observer sees makes it certain which of the two pos- 
sible things it is; then it becomes ἐμφανής, for it has 
aname. Ἔν and ἐκ serve our thought just as clearly 
here as they serve our senses when, on seeing some- 
thing shining in a colorless heap, we take it out of 
the heap, and finding it to be a jewel, put it im ἃ 
box. 

179. Τὰ ἐκφανῆ, figures in alto-rilievo (Plato Con- 
viy.), that is, figures clearly seen because standing 
out, ἐκ, from the surface of the stone. Could the 
word ἐμφανῆ be used on these figures? Very prop- 
erly, as soon as they are interpreted—not before ; 
the ἐν looking forward to the meaning; ἐκ looking 
back to the plane surface owt from which the figures 
sprung. 

180. Let the stone bearing these figures have 
been found among ruins, and so corroded by time 
and chance that it cannot be told at once what the 
figures mean, or what creatures they represent. They 
are still ἐκφανῆ, as on the day they were cut—éxfavij 
and no more. Now, let some gifted genius discover 
what the figures are, and what the whole means, and 
they are ἐμφανῆ. 


104 The Greek Prepositions. 


Il. 4: 468, “ Where his side was uncovered of his 
buckler as he bowed him down”; wncovered, é&e- 
φαάνθη. 

181. Plat. Theact. 206, d., Ὃ λόγος τὴν διάνοιαν 
ἐμφανῆ ποιξι διὰ φωνῆς μετὰ ῥημάτων τε Kal ὀνομάτων, 
discourse makes plain our thought by means of vocal 
sounds with words and phrases. Sounds of an un- 
known language can be no more than ἐκφανεῖς to him 
who hears. 

For a comparison of ἐκδεικνύναν with ἀποδ (see 
See. 150). 

182. ᾿Εἰκδεικνύναι, to show to the senses, so that the 
object is perceived that was not perceived before; 
the act communicates no knowledge, it only serves 
the senses. Show his children to me, ἐκδ- (Oed. Col. 
1021). The sole object of the showing is that the 
speaker may see them; ἐνδεικνύναι, to show to the 
mind something more than is seen, as the name, char- 
acter, or action. Π. 19:83, ]Πηλείδῃ ἐγὼν ἐνδείξομαι ; 
7 will show myself to Pelides ; will show my better 
mind, that he may know me, hitherto he has misun- 
derstood me. “Do you see the man whom I point 
out?” Isee him. “J will show you his name and 
title.” The first verb is é«é-, the second is ἐνδ-; ἐν 
puts the object in a category to the person addressed, 
in which it was not before. Cyri. Inst. 1:6, You 
will be able to use more persuasive words in just the 
degree that you can show yourself, ἐνδείκνυσθαι, able 
to do them good, or do them harm; the preposition 


*Eus and Ἔν. 105 


ἐν places the object in the class of able ones—able to 
do good or to do harm. 

183. The meanings of these two compounds seem 
nearly the same—to undertake, take in hand; but 
there is a difference not to be overlooked. This 
difference is suggested by the prepositions. Zo take 
a thing in hand, ἐγχειρεῖν, implies that the thing so 
taken can be grasped and handled—is under control.’ 
The hand is the superior, the thing the inferior, that 
may be moved by it, and may be held in its grasp. 
With ἐπιχειρεῖν the picture is different ; here it is the 
hand that is pictured as movable, and the thing on 
which it is put is thought of as stationary ; whether 
it is really movable or not is just the question to be 
determined in the act expressed by ἐπιχειρεῖν. It is 
for just this kind of human experience, where living 
foree comes against obstacles whose power of resist- 
ance, or character in other respects, is not yet deter- 
mined, that calls for such a verb as ἐπιχειρεῖν to come 
in and play its part. 

184. We will now examine some examples, and 
see if they confirm the deductions from the original 
meanings of the prepositions. 


1 The Lexicon strangely says ἐγχειρεῖν, to put one’s hand in a thing. 
This mistakes the figure. The thing is taken in hand—into the hand— 
in order to manage and control it, and not the hand put into the thing. 
This last, whether it be fire, or earth, or water, or a trap, into which 
one puts his hand, is not the way to affect the thing, but to affect the 
hand itself. P 


106 The Greek Prepositions. 


Xen. Ages. 1:1, It is not easy to make a worthy 
record of his praise, but yet 2 must be undertaken, 
ἐγχειρητέον. The proposed work was in the writer’s 
line—no one was more competent, therefore he could 
do it—the work was ὧν his hand. Plato Apol. Soc., 
I must attempt, Athenians, in the little time I have, 
to remove the bad opinion you have had of me so 
long ; must endeavor, ἐπυχειρητέον ; his hand was upon 
something that it might be beyond his strength to re- 
move. Mem. 2:3, To win over my friend to care 
for my affairs when I should be away from home, I 
would endeavor to take an interest in his affairs when 
he should be absent; would endeavor to take an in- 
terest, ἐγχειροίην ἐπιμελεῖσθαι ; this he could certainly 
do, hence ἐν is the right preposition—it makes the 
word suit the fact. Thuc. 2:3, They resolved that 
the attempt should be made, érvyerpntéa; it might not 
succeed, therefore ἐπί. In general we may say éyyeup- 
εἶν is concerned in individual matters ; ἐπυχειρεῖν with 
wider and more important interests. This is in con- 
formity with the primary suggestions of ἐν and ἐπὶ 
respectively ; and the instances found in reading con- 
firm the distinction. Plat. Prol. 310, C., "Eveye/pnoa 
παρά σε ἰέναι, 7 tried to come to thee—a thing naturally 
within the actor’s power; any defeat or hindrance 
would come not from the nature of the case, but from 
some accidental cause ; hence éyy-. 

Hadt. 2: 158, Necos was the first who tried, ἐπε- 
χείρησε, for a canal leading into the Red sea; which 


Ἔπς and Ἔν. 107 


Darius the Persian afterwards dug through, διώρυξεν. 
This was a large undertaking, carrying in its nature 
the possibility of failure; hence ἐπίχ-. 

185. Τυγχάνειν, to hit, but as hitting is in a degree 
a matter of chance, the words come to mean to happen 
as by chance; ἐπιτυγχάνειν, to fall wpon, meet with— 
the relation suggested by ἐπὶ is transient, not neces- 
sarily making a change in either of the things brought 
together; with ἐντυγχάνειν the relation is closer; to 
strike into a thing is more than to strike upon it. 
The crocodile coming upon, ἐντυχών, the bated hook 
swallows it down. Hdt. 2:70. Cyrus used often to 
send to his friends half emptied jars of wine, when 
he had some of the best, saying that had not now for 
a long time come across, ἐπυτύχοι, sweeter wine than 
this. Anab. 1:9, 25, The crocodile must needs swal- 
low the bated hook; with Cyrus drinking up the 
wine, or even taking possession of it, was a matter for 
his discretion ; therefore ἐντυγχάνειν---ἐπιτυγχάνειν. 

When digging 7 came upon, ἐπέτυχον, a coffin 
seven cubits long (Hdt. 1:68). The act led to no 
change in the coffin or the finder. The chariots had 
scythes underneath, pointing toward the ground, so 
as to cut in two whatever they might came across, ὅτῳ 
ἐντυγχάνοιεν. 


108 The Greek Prepositions. 


CHAPTER XV. 
περὶ AND ὑπέρ. 


186. Περὶ, around, about, concerning ; ὑπὲρ, over, 
above, for, in behalf of. 

These prepositions alike express some form of 
superiority—the first in overcoming distance, the sec- 
ond in overcoming gravitation. 

They alike take after them an object in the Geni- 
tive, suggestive usually of a causal relation in the 
object of the preposition ; as ἐπευγόμενοι περὶ νίκης, 
pressing on for victory (Il. 28 : 451); the desire for 
victory called forth the effort; ἐκκυβιστᾶν ὑπὲρ τῶν 
ξιφῶν, to leap over the swords—the danger of the feat 
stimulated to the endeavor (Xen. Conviv. 2 : 11). 

187. These two prepositions alike take an object 
in the Accusative; Achilles pursued him around the 
city, περὶ ἄστυ (Il. 22: 173). To go round the city 
was not the pursuer’saim. []. 5:16, The spear-point 
passed over the shoulder, ὑπὲρ ὦμον ; it was not the 
aim to have the spear pass over the shoulder. We 
may say then, that to go around a lake to survey tt, 
would require that the object of περὶ be in the Geni- 
tive; to go around it as the necessary way of getting 
forward in one’s journey would put the object in the 
Accusative ; to throw a stone over a tree by successful 
effort would put the object of ὑπὲρ in the Genitive ; 


Περὶ and Ὕπέρ. 109 


a bird flying over a tree would put the object in the 
Accusative. 

188. We here come to a distinction ; περὶ may 
take an object in the Dative case, ὑπὲρ never; and 
this difference arises from the original difference in 
these prepositions as designations of space. The thing 
which is around another may be so attached to it as 
to have a fixed position, and this invites the use of 
the Dative; as aring around the finger, περὶ δακτύλῳ, 
a bracelet around the wrist, mept χειρί, the coat of 
mail about the body, wept στήθεσσιν. In these cases 
the whole of the thing surrounded furnishes a surface. 
of attachment. 

189. With ὑπὲρ, however, the case is different. 
The situation over, above, presents to the imagination 
no point of attachment; it is thought of as the mo- 
mentary result of passing from one side to the other; 
there is no halting, therefore no fixedness, therefore 
no opportunity for the Dative. If that which is over 
is thought of as resting on, and so as fixed, ὑπὲρ is 
discharged, yielding its place to ἐπί. The reason, 
therefore, that ὑπὲρ is not followed by the Dative 
case is that ordinary human experience does not pre- 
sent the situation that calls for that coilocation. 

190. The study of examples containing these pre- 
positions reveals also another distinction, traceable to 
the original meanings of these prepositions as desig- 
nations of space. To be around a thing is a situation 
which many may hold at the same time, as soldiers 


110 The Greek Prepositions. 


drawn up around a city; to deliberate about public 
affairs ; such expressions invite the use of περὶ ; but 
to fight for one’s hearth and home, as if one were 
standing over them to defend them, invites the use 
of ὑπέρ; so too, when one acts in behalf of another, 
making that other’s case his own. Demos. adv. Phil. 
1, The war was begun with the purpose to chastise 
Philip, περὶ τοῦ τιμωρήσασθαι Φίλιππον ; the end of 
it is an endeavor to save ourselves from his hands, 
ὑπὲρ τοῦ μὴ παθεῖν αὐτούς κακῶς. The first was a 
work in which any who pleased might engage; the 
last was fitting for the Athenians alone—hence περὶ, 
ὑπέρ. To speak about our affairs, περὶ τῶν πραγμά- 
tov; a thing which any citizen might do, each one 
bringing his contribution to the discussion. 

To offer sacrifice for the city, ὑπὲρ τῆς πόλεως 
(Mem. 2:2, 13), an act in behalf of others, restricted 
to those who were first approved as worthy to per- 
form it. 

This is the truth concerning the affair, περὶ τοῦ 
πράγματος (Hdt. 1: 117), this is the one thing that is 
true of the many that may be said. 

191. They are not making war for glory, περὶ 
δόξης, nor for a part of their own territory, ὑπὲρ 
μέρους χώρας (Demos. Olyn. 1); fighting for glory 
was an open question; fighting in defense of their 
own land was not; it was standing over their own 
hearth ; no discussion here could be in place. Cyri. 
Instit. 8:3, They will not cease talking about us, 


Περὶ and ‘Trép. 111 


διαλεγόμενοι περὶ ἡμῶν. Since you are silent I will 
speak for you and for ourselves, ὑπὲρ o6u καὶ ὑπὲρ 
ὑμῶν ; in behalf of, as standing over to protect or 
defend. 

Anab. 7:4, 10, Would you even be willing to die 
for this one, ὑπὲρ τούτου͵ You must fight with me 
for him, περὶ τουδέ μοι διαμάχεσθαι, for I will not 
give him up. In the first phrase the actor is of neces- 
sity one; in the second, it is necessarily more than 
one—the object of the preposition is not thought as 
belonging to either of the actors; therefore ὑπὲρ could 
not be used. 

192. How is tt that I hear this of thee? τί tévto 
ἀκούω περὶ cov (Luke 16:2). The accusations were 
brought to the master respecting his steward; but 
(Il. 6: 524) that on your account I hear shameful re- 
proaches from the Trojans, ὅθ᾽ ὑπὲρ σέθεν ἄισχέ 
ἀκούω πρὸς Τρώων. Hector was the head of the 
house; therefore the shameful things, aicyea, were 
uttered against Hector himself for not controlling his 
cowardly younger brother. It is an appeal not to 
Paris’s bravery and patriotism, but to his family pride, 
and regard to his brother; πρὸς Τρώων, not by hear- 
say from the Trojans, but face to face, as they stood 
before him, and uttered their reproaches.’ 


1 The translation by Lang, Leaf, and Myers, is as follows: “That 
I hear shameful words concerning thee in the Trojans’ mouths, who 
for thy sake endure much toil.” The one offered above is quite differ- 
ent in the picture it presents, and seems commended by several con- 


112 The Greck Prepositions. 


CHAPTER XVI. 
περὶ AND ὑπὲρ IN COMPOSITION. 


193. Ly some compounds with περὶ, and in many 
with ὑπὲρ, the preposition simply intensifies the mean- 
ing of the simple word ; καλός, beautiful ; περικαλλής, 
very beautiful ; μέγας, great; ὑπέρμεγας, immensely 
great. These are called Adverbial uses; because the 
noun—object of the prepositions—is not named. It 
may however be restored; περικαλλής, beautiful be- 
yond (περὶ) others; ὑπέρμεγας, great above (ὑπὲρ) 
others. 

In most compounds of περὶ and ὑπὲρ, the mean- 
ing is too plain to invite or justify the citation of 
examples. 

194. An apparent contradiction is found in the 
meanings of περιορᾶν and zreplovda—words usually 


siderations ; it preserves the natural and strict use of ὑπὲρ, while 
“concerning thee” is the translation of περὶ, not of ὑπὲρ; it is in 
consonance with the kindly temper of Hector toward his younger 
brother; it harmonizes with the patriarchal feeling, making Hector— 
the head of the family—responsible for all its members; it spares the 
self-love of Paris, since it does not present Hector as telling him the 
bad things the Trojans were saying about him (Hector takes all this 
upon himself); it is more winning, making the appeal not to Paris’s 
love of country, but to his love of family; it presents a picture all 
pulsating with life—the chieftain weighted with public cares, yet warm 
in his family affections, and mediating between his family and his 
people. For the meaning of πρὸς with the Gen., see Sec. 84. 


Seas 


Περὶ and Ὑπὲρ in Composition. 113 


classed together as having the same signification. 
The word is sometimes used with the meaning to 
look around and not see—to disregard, take no note 
of—as if the sight went round the object so as to 
avoid it; in other cases the preposition is used inten- 
sively, as if the seer saw more than another would see 
in a like case. Hdt. 1:89, If, therefore, thou shalt 
permit, περιΐδῃς, this plundering. I]. 10: 247, Since 
he excels in taking note, ἐπεὶ περίοιδε νοῆσαι. Od. 
17:317, Lor on the track he was keen beyond others, 
ἴχνεσι yap περιήδη. Hdt. 38:65, I charge you not to 
permit, μὴ περιϊδεῖν, the sovereignty to come round 
again to the Medes. Od. 8 : 244, Since he ἐξ knowing 
beyond others, περίοιδε ἄλλων. 

195. Our English words look and see with the 
preposition over play the same double game with us. 
We should think certainly, from Etymology, that the 
business of an overseer was to make oversight—the 
very things he ought not to do. So, too, a man, in 
looking over an account ought not to overlook a single 
item in it. 

In either language such verbal contradictions may 
remind us how meager the resources of language are 
compared with the ever-varying shapes and turns of 
thought which it has to serve. 

196. Περιμένειν (Hdt. 7:58), They had been or- 
dered to wait for his coming, περιμένειν ; the time of 
his coming was uncertain, and what they were to do 
afterward was uncertain ; compare ἀναμένειν and κατα- 


114 The Greek Prepositions. 


μένειν. Hdt. 4:89, περιμένειν, to wait for some- 
thing uncertain, as to the time of the arrival, or the 
result of it; not as stated in the Lexicon, like simple 
μένω. 

197. It may be well to bring περιμένειν and ἀνα- 
μένειν into a stricter comparison by examining a pass- 
age in which they both occur (Anab. 5:1, 4 and 5). 

The Greeks, having made their way through the 
mountains to Trapezus, and rested there, are deliberat- 
ing how to complete their return home. They wish to 
go by sea, if possible. Chirisophus speaks: “ Anaxi- 
bius is a friend of mine, and is now admiral. If you 
will send me, I think I shall obtain ships and trans- 
ports sufficient to carry you home. Now do you, if 
you wish to return by sea, remain here (περιμένετε) 
till I shall return, and that will not be long.” Hear- 
ing this the soldiers rejoiced, and voted that he sail 
as quick as possible. After so much had been settled 
Xenophon addresses them: “Chirisophus is sent to 
obtain ships, and we are going to wait for his return 
(ἀναμενοῦμεν). I will now tell you what I think we 
ought to be doing while we wait.” Observe, the 
situation is changed when Xenophon speaks. They 
have resolved to go by sea, and instructed Chirisophus 
to make all haste. In every mind the thought is that 
their course home is settled, and that they shall soon 
be on their way. The situation calls for ἀναμένειν, 
just as περιμένειν was fitted for the waiting when 
everything was in doubt. 


Ἢ 


Are Prepositions Interchangeable ? 115 


CHAPTER XVII. 
ARE PREPOSITIONS INTERCHANGEABLE ἢ 


198. Can prepositions be interchanged without a 
change of meaning? A respectable author* answers 
this question in the afirmative. Let us examine the 
examples adduced in proof. The prepositions given 
as interchangeable are ava, ἐν, περὶ, also ἐπὶ and ἐἰς. 
Hdt. 6:86, Ava πᾶσαν τὴν “Ελλάδα, ἐν δὲ καὶ περὶ 
Ἰωνίῃν τῆς σῆς δικαιοσύνης ἣν λόγος πολλός. Through 
all the vest of Greece, and particularly in and about 
Tonia, there was much talk of thy honesty. Observe, 
the speaker was an Ionian; he was therefore well ac- 
quainted with matters in and about that small coun- 
try; but when he speaks of all the rest of Greece, he 
of course means as far as he knew—cither by travel 
or through the reports of others. This mental quali- 
fication lies in the nature of the case. He could not 
know all the rest of Greece as he knew his own little 
country Ionia. We have just the situation that in- 
vites the use of ἀνὰ The picture is complete; the 
other prepositions—év, epi—trip like nimble servitors 
each to his place. Nothing can be interchanged, or 
even changed. 

199. Again, from Demos.: Τῆς ἐπὶ τὴν ᾿Αττικὴν 
ὁδδυ καὶ τῆς εἰς Πελοπόννησον κύριος γέγονεν, He has 


1 Jelf., vol. ii, p. 317, Oxf. 


116 The Greek Prepositions. 


become master of the road to Attica, and of that into 
Peloponnesus. We might, indeed, say: εἰς τὴν ᾿Ατ- 
τικήν, for the country had boundaries, and space 
within those boundaries ; but this was not the picture 
in the speaker’s mind. It was a little tract, with one 
great prize to invite the aggressor, and Philip was its 
implacable foe. Now, what preposition is called for, 
when the speaker would say that Philip is master of 
the road to Attica? Demosthenes was not such a 
lazy public functionary as to shape his phrase with 
the preposition εἰς. His mind kindled with the pict- 
ure of Philip’s hostility to Athens, and so he employs 
emt. Peloponnesus, on the other hand, had a territory 
more than ten times as large as Attica, contained seven 
states, of diverse policies and aims, and was entered 
by a long, narrow isthmus—a kind of neck to a eapa- 
cious bottle. Here everything invites the use of εἰς ; 
as for ἐπὶ there was no combination among the seven 
states forming such a political unit as would admit 
its use. 

200. It may seem that in the English phrase to 
fall on the knees, which is sometimes expressed in 
Greek by ἐπὶ and sometimes by εἰς, these preposi- 
tions are interchangeable. but this is not quite clear. 
When one falls om his knees in submission or sup- 
plication, the preposition is ἐπὶ; when he stumbles 
and falls on his knees, it is εἰς. This last situation 
calls for instant action for relief, or recovery; and 
we have seen that εἰς suits this situation, and ἐπὶ does 


Εν 


᾿Αμφί, On Both Sides of, Around, About. 117 


not, for the stumbler does not fall on his knees to do 
something there; his instant call is to get out of the 
position. The petitioner is on his knees to do some- 
thing while remaining there—a situation that calls 
for ἐπί. 

201. To say that Prepositions cannot ever be in- 
terchanged would be a very rash statement ; but before 
adducing examples in proof of a possible interchange 
the critic should see well that he understands the 
Greek, not through an English translation of it, but 
by imagining the situation that called for the ex- 
pression, and in that way feels its force. There is 
no other path; every sentence has a breathing life of 
its own; and not until one feels its pulse can he 
criticise it. 


CHAPTER “XV itI- 
ἀμφί, ON BOTH SIDES OF, AROUND, ABOUT. 


202. Tuts preposition has a claim to stand beside 
mept, both for its general resemblance, and for its 
specific difference. Originally it means on both sides 
of ; and is called for in speech about living creatures, 
which have right and left sides, right and left feet, 
eyes, and so forth. This original meaning is so near 
to περὶ that in many cases it seems to stand for it; 
οἱ περὶ τὸν Πείσανδρον (Thue. 8 : 65); οἱ ἀμφὶ Ἐέρξεα 


118 The Greek Prepositions. 


(Hidt. 8:25); of numbers, οἱ ἀμφὶ τὰς δώδεκα μυριάδας 
(Cyri. Inst. 1 : 2, 15); περὶ ἑβδομήκοντα (Thue. 1: ὅ4). 
In other instances the distinction between ἀμφὶ and 
περὶ is plain; οἶκος ἀμφίθυρος, a house with a door 
on both sides, that is, in front and rear (Soph. Ph. 159); 
such a word as περίθυρος has no use, and therefore no 
place in the language ; ἀμφίθαλής, of children, happy 
in having both parents alive (Il. 22: 496). It is plain 
that, if a definite number is thought of as a point 
reached by counting, a number somewhere near that, 
more or less, would invite the use of ἀμφὶ, and not 
περὶ, to express it, for the act of counting is naturally 
thought of as proceding in a line, as when one counts 
balls on a rod, or beads on a string. Any variation 
from a number so thought of must be either less or 
more along that line. This is the picture presented 
in of ἀμφὶ τὰς δώδεκα μυριάδας, quoted above. But 
περὶ is also used in expressions of number, as with 
ἑβδομήκοντα, just above; and possibly περὶ is pre- 
fered to ἀμφὶ here as suiting better the picture in the 
writer’s imagination; for Thucydides was thinking of 
the seventy ships, more or less, sunken in the sea-fight ; 
the wide waste of water, and the scattered and sink- 
ing ships presented a picture where περὶ was not out 
of place, as it would be in thinking of number in a 
line, or on a string. However this may be, ἀμφὶ 
suits the mental picture, as περὶ would not, in noting 
the time (ἀμφὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν) when the messenger 
arrived at full speed to announce the approach of the 


Ἂ "καρ τ τ 


Πρό, Before, In Front of. 119 


enemy. ‘Time is thought of asa line. So, too, ἀμφὶ 
strictly suits the mental picture in I. 3:70, Set ye me 
and Menelaus to fight for Helen, ἀμφὶ “EXévy. There 
were but two claimants, and one way or the opposite, 
as if along the same line, the prize must go. 

In many cases our search does not disclose a dis- 
tinction in use between ἀμφὶ and περί But the 
original designations in space are not the less distinct ; 
περὶ is the servitor of the dimensions, length, and 
breadth, ἀμφὶ of only one, the line. 


CHAPTER XIX. 
πρό, BEFORE, IN FRONT OF. 


203. Πρό, before, as walls, forts, and defenders are 
before the city ; to go forth, πρό, is to go as champion, 
or defender ; the point of view is the place from which 
he goes; and the relation is, usually, that of acting in 
behalf of another, taking his part, meeting danger 
for him. 1]. 10: 286, ὅτε πρό ᾿Αχαιῶν ἄγγελος ἤει, 
when he went as messenger in behalf of the Achaians. 

Of Hector we read (Il. 24: 215), He stood forth 
before (πρό) the Trojan men and fair women, nor 
thought of fear nor flight ; πρό, forth as champion. 

204. I]. 17: 665, Then from Patroclus went Mene- 
lans, sore loth, for he exceedingly feared lest the 


120 The Greek Prepositions. 


Achaians in disheartening fear, ἀργαλέου πρὸ φόβοιο, 
should leave him a prey to his foes; πρό, as if driven 
forth by fear. 

205. The prepositions πρὸ and ὑπὲρ have one 
broad mark in common. They are alike witnesses in 
speech to the fact that man has in him the power 
rationally and freely to deny himself for his fellow- 
man; can toil for him to his own loss, can suffer, 
endure, and die for him. Cyri. Inst. 8:8, 4, διακιν- 
δυνεύειν πρὸ βασιλέως, to incur danger in behalf of 
the king. Hdt. 7: 134, Would any one be willing to 
die for Sparta, πρὸ τῆς Σπάρτης ἀποθνήσκειν ; also 
7: 172, to perish for your defense, πρὸ ὑμῶν ἀπολέσ- 
θαι. Soph. O. T. 10, to speak in behalf of these, πρὸ 


τῶνδε φωνεῖν. 


CHAPTER XX. 
σὺν AND μετά. 


206. Σὺν, with, along with; μετά, among, in com- 
mon with. 
These two prepositions, when considered together, 


? The Lexicon seems to accept as authority the Schcliast, who says 
“flight, Lat. fuga, the only sense of φόβος in Homer”; but 1]. 9: 2 dis- 
proves this dictum; φύζα φόβου κρυόεντος ἑταίρη, headlong rout, com- 
panion of chilling fear; in this passage fear, φόβος, is the expression 
for the inward feeling; of this feeling flight, pu a, its outward sign, 
is the attendant, going with it, as the effect goes with its cause. 


Σὺν and Mera. 121 


throw light on each other, both from their likeness 
and their difference. Od. 9: 286, I with these, σὺν 
τοῖσδε, escaped destruction. The association here 
is transient and purely incidental to the act of mak- 
ing their escape. Od. 10: 820, Now go to the sty, 
lie there with the rest of thy company, μετ᾽ ἄλλων 
ἑταίρων. Here the association is the emphatic thing. 
Anab. 1:9, 2, For first when yet a boy, and receiv- 
ing his training with his brother and with the other 
boys, σὺν TO αδελφῷ καὶ σὺν τοῖς ἄλλοις παισί, he was 
reckoned far superior to them all. Here the associa- 
tion expressed by σὺν is incidental, subservient to the 
comparison, which is the main point. 

Od. 16:140, He used to eat and drink wzth serv- 
ants, μετὰ δμώων, in the house. Here the association 
is not incidental; it is the essential point. 

207. In every case, indeed, where there is associa- 
tion, there must be participation in something ; those 
who sit together at table must participate in the com- 
mon fare; those who travel together must participate 
in the hardships of the way. The use of pera or of 
σὺν usually determines whether this participation is 
the leading idea conveyed. 

208. Men not only act with, σύν, their fellows, 
but with their own endowments and qualities (Od. 
24:193); a wife with great virtue, σὺν μεγάλῃ ἀρετῇ ; 
with their equipment, σὺν νηΐ θοῇ (Il. 1: 389); with 
the instrument, σὺν σκήπτρῳ (Il. 2:42); with their 
commission that empowers them to act, and with the 


122 The Greek Prepositions. 


results of their action, good or bad. There is nothing 
necessarily co-ordinate or like, as in the things brought 
together by werd. Here there may be the widest dis- 
parity; men may act σὺν τῷ θεῷ, with God, under 
his guidance, with his help. With μετὰ, however, 
the things or persons brought together are so far of a 
sort that they are capable of participation in some- 
thing. We have instanced sleep, food, and drink. 
Il. 24:400, With the others I cast lots, τῶν μέτα 
παλλόμενος, that is, participating in the chances and 
danger, glory of the service (Soph. Phil.), when 
Achilles was, peta ζώντων, with living men—shared 
their lot (Il. 13: 700), μετὰ Βοιωτῶν ἐμάχοντο, they 
were fighting with the Boeotians—among them, on 
their side, sharing their chances of the battle. Fi- 
‘nally we read in Plat. Phaed. of the soul of the good 
man puritied from passions so as forever after truly 
to live with God, μετὰ θεῶν διάώγουσα, in the language 
of the New Testament, to become partaker of the 
divine nature. We see how widely this differs from 
the idea expressed by σὺν τοῖς θεοῖς, and by what 
steps we have come to the discrimination. 

209. After verbs of motion μετὰ means to go 
among, to go for, or after, so as to secure one’s pres- 
ence; finally, to go after without any added implica- 
tion. 1]. 3:370,”EAxKe μετ᾽ ᾿Αχαίους, he was dragging 
him in among the Achaians. Anab. 1:1, Κῦρον peta- 
mépetat, he sends for Cyrus. 

210. In composition μετὰ often denotes change ; 


Διὰ, Through, Across. 123 


as μεταβάλλειν, to throw into a different state, μετα- 
νοεῖν, to change one’s mind. This is not unnatural. 
With the idea among in the mind, action suggests 
relative change as its necessary condition. The men 
on a chess-board travel much; but, as it is all among 
themselves, it is brought about only by a change of 
relative position. 

The compounds with σὺν do not invite special 
consideration. 


CHAPTER XXI. 


διὰ, THROUGH, ACROSS. 


211. Tue object of this preposition is thought of 
as an obstacle, to be crossed, passed through, or sur- 
mounted, as'a gate-way, a river, a forest, a mountain 
chain, or even a level plain, for distance is of itself 
an obstacle. Ava means primarily through from side 
to side, not “from one end to the other,” as stated in 
the Lexicon. The most interesting thing in crossing 
this obstructive space is the getting through it, and 
beyond it. The spear inflicted a wound διὰ θώρακος, 
ace the breast-plate, διὰ κυνέης, ras the hel- 

et; it did not begin to fulfill the warrior’s aim till 
Ἷ had past clean through. The passing quite through 
was a prerequisite, or previous condition for doing its 


124 The Greek Prepositions. 


proper work. Here opens a wide field for the Geni- 
tive case. 

212. Cyri. Inst. 1:4, The others all had Cyrus on 
their tongues, διὰ στόματος. The Greek is more 
picturesque than this English ; a name does not 
amount to much till it is spoken—it must come out 
through (διὰ) the door of the lips. This last phrase 
of Old English fully equals the Greek, which literally 
means through and out of, the Genitive denoting the 
point of departure—the point from which. Again, 
when they see each other, διὰ χρόνου, after a time, 
that is, after a temporary separation, the time of the 
separation being passed through ; I will come after a 
time, διὰ xpovov—the time being passed through. 
Anab. 1:8, 16, He heard a noise passing through the 
ranks, διὰ τῶν τάξεων. It passed quite through the 
ranks, otherwise he would not have heard it. The 
Gen. with διὰ denotes the agent. Hdt. 1:69, Croesus 
announced this through messengers, dv ἀγγέλων. By 
analogy with the above, it denotes means, definite 
measure, singly or in succession, of space, number, 
quantity, all flowing by analogy from the primary 
meaning of διὰ, through ; as οὐ διὰ μακροῦ, in no long 
time, δι᾿ ὀλίγου, after a short time; δι’ évavtév, after 
a year, yearly; to do an act δι᾿ ὀργῆς, through anger, 
anger the inciting cause preceding the act; if it be 
objected that the anger was not all passed when the 
external act took place, it can be said in reply, that 
enough had passed to lead to the outward act, and 


Διὰ, Through, Across. 125 


that is all that concerns the speaker, or the hearer ; 
hoping that Sicily would be conquered, δι αὐτοῦ, 
through him as the instrument, or agent (Thue. 6: 15). 

Aes. Pro. 281, ὡς μάθητε διὰ τέλους τὸ πᾶν, that 
you may learn the whole to the very end; the Greek 
is picturesque beyond the power of the English; διὰ 
τέλους, through the end, to the end and beyond. 

213. Hdt. 9: 18, Mardonius refrained from ravag- 
ing Attica, ἐλπίζων διὰ παντὸς τῦυ χρόνου ὁμολογήσειν 
σφέας, hoping all the while that the Athenians would 
come to an agreement; the phrase διὰ παντός, ete:, 
means through all the time, that is, through all the 
periods successively of this time of doubt about the 
Athenians, and the endeavor to win and hold them 
to the Persian side. Mardonius did not begin to 
plunder and destroy till all that time was expired. 
The first act of destroying was after the last moment 
of waiting and expectation; hence the Genitive case 
is a necessity, it gives a true copy of what is in the 
mind. 

214. Of the two limits of the thing crossed, the 
hither and the farther limit, we have treated the 
farther one as the more emphatic; because the ex- 
perience at that point is the more important experi- 
ence. Any one may enter a forest wishing to go 
through it—may begin to cross a mountain—may go 
so far, at least, in crossing a river as to get into it. 
But things that require no effort to do, and which 
amount to nothing when done, do not furnish much 


126 The Greek Prepositions. 


material for speech. Without dwelling, then, on the 
nearer limit, it remains to consider the space inter- 
vening between the two limits of the thing crossed 
or passed over. And, first, we observe that this in- 
tervening space offers to the imagination no fixed 
point or place of rest. Therefore, as the Dative is 
the proper case to mark fixed position in space, there 
seems to be no chance for the Dative case to come in 
and play its part after the preposition διὰ ; and so, in 
fact, we never find it; the fact agrees with our antic- 
ipations, and both conform to the nature of the case. 
Grammarians did not decide this question, but nature 
and spontaneous thought settled it before gramma- 
rians were born. 

215. The single point left, then, for consideration, 
is the passage through the intervening space; what 
characterized that passage, in itself considered; what 
happened in and along that passage that appeals to 
the imagination, and so is worthy of mention? If 
there was anything of this sort in the speaker’s mind, 
he would show that fact by putting the object of διὰ 
in the Accusative case; for that is the case naturally 
expressive of distance passed over. This brings us to 
διὰ with the Accusative. 

216. In examining διὰ with the Accusative, we 
are met at the outset with the statement in the Lex. : 
“ Ava of Place, only in Poets, the same sense as dua w. 
Gen.” Before accepting so discouraging a statement, 
let us examine the passages adduced in proof. 1]. 


Διὰ, Through, Across. 127 


7: 247, ἕξ δὲ διὰ πτύχας ἤλθε Saifwv χαλκὸς ἀτειρής. 
And through six folds went cleaving its way the un- 
yielding spear. What did it do then? It stopped; 
but in the seventh fold of hide it stuck, ἐν τῇ δ᾽ ἐβδο- 
μάτῃ ῥινῷ cxéro; it did not get clean through at all— 
of course it did not accomplish anything after getting 
through, which it must have done in order to justify 
the use of the genitive (see the foregoing examples.) 
But, though the spear did not go through, it did a 
great work—it drove its way through the bronze 
plate, and through six folds of hide. The mighty 
force of the throw was expended in the space be- 
tween the front and the back of the shield; and the 
poet suits the word to the fact by putting the object 
of διὰ in the Accusative case. 

217. Second example (Il. 11: 112-119), deseribing 
the hind fleeing before the lion who has devoured her 
fawns, she speeds away in terror, διὰ δρυμὰ πυκνὰ καὶ 
ὕλην, through the thick coppice and woods. The 
picture shows us what took place within the limits 
of the forest, not of an escape through and beyond 
it, for there was no escape. The accusative fits the 
word to the thought; the genitive would have de- 
stroyed the picture. So in 1], 23: 129, in felling the 
trees for Patroclus’s funeral pyre, and dragging them, 
διὰ ρωπήϊα πυκνὰ, through the thick underwood ; the 
interest of the action centers on what is going on 
within the woods. Od. 9:400, The Cyclops dwelt 
about him in the caves, δι ἄκριας ἠνεμοέσσας, along 


128 The Greek Prepositions. 


the windy heights. The genitive here would give us 
no picture. 

218. Cyri. Inst. 1:6, By reason of those pious 
observances of yours, διά ye ἐκείνας τὰς ἐπιμελείας, 
you will approach the gods more hopefully when you 
are going to pray; that is, the consciousness of his 
pious conduct is like an atmosphere of hope about 
him as he goes to offer his prayers. Od. 8: 520, He 
conquered by grace of Athene the great-hearted, διὰ 
μεγάθυμον ᾿Αθήνην. The goddess is thought of as a 
surrounding, or accompanying presence, “ covering 
his head in the day of battle.” Cyri. Inst. 1:5, Those 
fond of praise are won by commendation, and for this 
reason, διὰ τοῦτο, they readily undergo all toil and all 
danger. Their fondness of praise is a permanent 
quality, or atmosphere, if you please, in which they 
always move, whereas διὰ τόυτου would mean by 
means of this—giving the picture of something tran- 
sient, as means to an end. 

219. The idea of two suggested by διὰ is not al- 
ways the Aither and farther side of a thing struck 
through or pierced, as when a spear pierces through 
a breast-plate; it may be the right and left portions 
of something struck through with a cleaving blow— 
as when one with an axe cuts in two, διωκόπτει, the 
bar of a door, or gate (Anab. 7:1, 17). One or the 
other of these forms of thought may be looked for in 
words compounded with διὰ ; διαγγέλλειν, to announce, 
as from man to man; distinguished from ἀπαγγέλλειν, 


bch da 
SA silver tah 


ules 
vay 


‘itso aa 


- Διὰ, Through, Across. 129 


which announces something of known and felt im- 
portance; from παραγγέλλειν, to announce by au- 
thority, while ἐξαγγέλλειν is to announce a secret ; 
προσαγγέλλειν, to announce in expectation of a re- 
sponse. Lucian Di. De. 9: 

Posrmon. Could I have a short interview with 
Zeus, Hermes ? 

Hermes. Quite impossible! 

Posrmon. But at least announce me to him, ὅμως 
προσάγγειλον αὐτῷ ; in modern phrase, take up my 
name, or card, to him. This act of announcement 
looks for a response, and πρὸς attaches itself to the 
verb to mark that fact. 

220. Aipéw, to take, seize, gain for one’s self; 
διαιρξιν, to strike assunder, to separate into two parts. 
Kedevew, to urge, incite, command; διακελεύεσθαι, to 
encourage each other, to incite, man by man. Aéyeo- 
θαι, to receive, take, accept; διαδέχεσθαι, to receive 
and pass on to another, as men standing’in a line may 
receive and pass along buckets of water to extinguish 
a fire; as hunters with fresh horses keep up the pur- 
suit of an animal; ἀναδέχεσθαι, καταδέχεσθαι (see 
Sec. 30). 

221. Διακρίνειν, to discriminate between two. Luc. 
Di. De. 26, ἐγὼ οὐκ ἂν διακρίναιμι αὐτοὺς, [ could not 
discriminate between them; i. e., between Castor and 
Pollux. Διαγινώσκειν, to tell one from the other; 
same Dial., Πῶς διαγινώσκεις, how do you know them 
apart ? τη} to escape by fleeing through 


130 The Greek Prepositions. 


dangers; the thought often is of a succession of dan- 
gers on the right and left, through which the fugitive 
makes his escape. 

222. Διαχειρεῖν, to do, or take in hand, one’s part 
where two are acting, as to take an oar to match one 
who rows on the other side of the boat. Cyrus, Inst. 
1, when a boy, would try to do a man’s work, δια- 
χειροίη τὰ ἀνδρός, i. e., on seeing what a man did, he 
would be emulous to match him, and do the same. 

᾿Ἐπιχειρεῖν means something like this, but the 
difference is clear. Zo try to walk fifty miles in a 
day—an attempt in which one may fail—is ἐπιχειρεῖν ; 
to try to keep up with another, walking by his side, 
is διαχειρεῖν. 


Norg, Sec. 108. 


A collection of individual things may be formed by bringing them 
beside each other horizontally—a relation in space suggested by fo, 
near to, beside; Gr. πρὸς, Lat. ad, in its primary suggestion of hori- 
zontal motion. If, however, the collection is thought of as if made by 
heaping the things on each other, the preposition in Gr. would be ἐπὶ 
—each thing resting om what was there before as its basis. If now 
we translate this spatial relation into English by any of the terms ¢o, 
near to, beside, in addition to, the words do not conform strictly to the 
mental picture; we use a locution drawn from a different form of 
thought. It may be the most convenient, and the best we can find, 
but it is not exact. With πρὸς each particular of the collection is 
merely brought into nearness to others; the particulars come into no 
new relation but this, in the process; and they lose nothing of their 


lS πους 


» 


Διὰ, Through, Across. 131 


severalty by it. With ἐπὶ the case is different. The particulars of 
the accumulated mass lose, to the imagination, something of their 
severalty by the fact that they are made contributary to the formation 
of anew whole. They are also in a new relation, for each particular 
of the pile is now either a supporter of others, or is supported by 
them. Hence the statement that ἐπὶ does not properly carry the 
meaning besides, in addition to. 


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